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Impacts of loving-kindness meditation (l km) on aggression and pro-social behaviors among middle school boys
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Sraman , C. S.; Dissanayake, G.
Introduction The Pāli term Metta is defined as a strong and sincere wish for the happiness of all beings, without discrimination, that is free of selfish attachment. Loving-Kindness Meditation is one of forty meditations based in Buddhism, and is frequently practiced by Buddhists (and non – Buddhists, particularly in clinical setting). The Pāli Canon includes many discourses that explain Metta (Metta Bhāvana) in different illustrative ways addressing different individuals’ personality and capability to grasp it. Many studies have demonstrated that Loving-Kindness Meditation (LKM) promotes physical and psychosocial wellbeing in individuals (Fredrickson, Cohn, Coffey, Pek, & Finkel, 2008; Kearney, Malte, McManus, Martinez, Felleman, & Simpson, 2013; Sahar, Szsepsenwol, Zilcha-Mano, Haim, Zamir, Levi-Yeshuvi, & Levit-Binnum, 2014). However, no experimental studies have been conducted to examine the impacts of LKM on aggressions and pro-social behaviors. Therefore, the objective of the current study was to understand the affect of LKM on aggressive behavior and pro-social behaviors among middle school boys. This study attempts to understand if LKM reduces aggression in middle school boys and whether LKM increases pro-social behaviors in middle school boys. Methodology In this current research a Matched-Pairs Experimental Design was utilized. One hundred and seventy seven (N=177) eighth grade boys were selected from two Boys’ schools in the Kandy district. Out of those participants (N=177) ninety four participants (N= 94) were randomly selected for the experimental group. This study used two scales: the aggression scale- a self-report measure of aggressive behavior for young adolescents, developed by Orpinas, & Frankowski, (2001), and the revised pro-social tendencies measure (PTM-R) developed by Carlo, Hausmann, Christiansen, & Randall (2003). After receiving permission from the Zonal Director, informed consent was obtained from all participants and their parents before conducting this experimental study. Both schools’ experimental groups were exposed to a LKM intervention lasting four weeks which included fifteen to twenty minute sessions three times a week. The control group did not receive any intervention. Independent sample (between-subject) t-test analyses were utilized to examine the differences of aggressive behaviors and pro-social behaviors of the control group in comparison to the experimental group in pre-treatment and post-treatment. The differences of experimental group and control group along time 1 (pre-treatment) and time 2 (post-treatment) were examined using One Way Repeated Measure (within-subjects) ANOVA analysis. Results and Discussion Table.01. t-test statistic of pre test on aggression < table > Levene’s significant level (mean score on aggression in experimental and control groups were M=16.17 and M=17.24 respectively with p = .097) did not show significance difference between experimental group and control group before exposure to LKM intervention. Table.02. t-test statistic of post test on aggression < table > Levene’s p – value for the post test (mean score on aggression in experimental and control groups were M= 12.87 and M=16.71 respectively with p = .030), which meant the LKM intervention significantly reduced aggression among middle school boys. Table.03. Within subject ANOVA of experimental group on aggression < table > The within ANOVA analysis results suggested that, there is significant linear trend (F(1, 93)= 10.483, p= .002, partial η2 = .101) between LKM intervention and decreasing aggression across Time1 and Time 2. Pro-Social Behaviors Table. 04. Within subject ANOVA of experimental group on pro-social behavior < table> The results did not show significant linear trend (F(1, 93)= 274.090, p = .09, partial η2 = .03) on pro-social behaviors in the experimental group along time1 and time2. Consistent with hypotheses aggression in the experimental group was significantly reduced after exposure to the LKM intervention. Using independent sample t-test aggression scores of the experimental group were compared with that of the control group prior to LKM intervention (time 1) and after the LKM was over (time 2). The analysis does not show significant mean difference between experimental group and control group on aggression in the pre-test (Table. 01), but the analysis shows that there is significant reduction in aggressive behaviors among middle school boys after exposure to the LKM intervention (Table. 02). This result was triangulated using a One Way Repeated Measure (within- subjects) ANOVA analysis (Table. 03). Result obtained from One Way Repeated Measure (within-subjects) ANOVA analysis did not show a significant linear trend in differences in pro-social behaviors in the experimental group along time 1 (pre-treatment) and time 2 (post- treatment) (Table. 04) which contradicts the hypothesis on prosocial behavior. Conclusion LKM intervention significantly reduced aggression among experimental group, but it failed to show any significant impact on pro-social behaviors. The aggression scale measured the actual aggressive behaviors that had taken place during the past seven days, while Pro- social Behavior Scale measured attitudes of students. Hence, results for pro-social behaviors may not be indicative of individuals’ actual pro- social behaviors. Furthermore, the data collection in post-treatment happened during the year end examination process (after students finished writing an exam), hence contextual factors such as stress, wanting to leave school early etc. might have influenced the results of this experimental study.
Modality in Sinhala and its syntactic representation
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Ananda, M. G. L.
Introduction Modality is considered a semantic concept expressing such notions as possibility, necessity, probability, obligation, permission, ability, and volition. These different notions have given rise to two major distinct sub-types of modality as epistemic and root modality. Languages vary considerably in the way they realize each of these finer distinctions. Epistemic interpretations are speaker-oriented, or, in the case of embedded clauses, matrix-subject oriented qualification or modification of the truth of a proposition. The root interpretations involve the will, ability, permission or obligation to perform some action or bring about some state of affairs. Nevertheless, sentences are often ambiguous between the two readings. Palmer (2001) observes that there is considerable variation in the ways that languages deal with grammatical categories, and there is probably more variation with modality than with other categories. He observes that one language may mark commands as irrealis, another may mark them as realis, while yet another may not treat them as part of a system of modality at all. According to Cinque (1999), epistemic modality expresses the speaker’s degree of confidence about the truth of the proposition (based on the kind of information he/she has). Further, in Cinque’s functional sequence, epistemic modals and root modals correspond to a structural difference as well: epistemic modals are generated higher in the structure and have scope over the root modals. Sinhala has a number of particles/suffixes to convey modality. They can attach to any lexical category in an agglutinative fashion and take scope over the domain to the left. (2) They can also attach at the clausal level thereby scoping the whole clause. (3) 1. Nimal kaareka seeduwa Nimal car washed Nimal washed the car 2. Nimal lu kaareka seeduwE Nimal EVID car washed-E Nimal, it is said, was the one who washed the car Example (1) is a neutral sentence. In (2), the subject, Nimal, is exclusively in the (narrow) scope of the evidential modal particle1, i.e. the evidential report is about Nimal. The same particle can attach at the clausal level, and then the whole clause comes under the (wide) scope of that particle (3). 3. Nimal kaareka seeduwa lu Nimal car washed EVID It is said that Nimal washed the car This paper explores modality in Sinhala from a syntactic perspective. In particular, it attempts to answer such questions as (1) what are different types of modalities that can be observed in Sinhala and how are they represented? (2) Does the root-epistemic distinction in modality hold syntactically, and if so, what is their syntactic projection? (3) How does modality in Sinhala interact with the verbal system? Is there modal agreement in Sinhala? The theoretical alignment of the study is the generative syntactic theory expounded by Chomsky (1965-), and within that, the cartographic framework proposed by Rizzi (1997-). Methodology Data for the present study consisted of the grammatical judgments of native speakers of Sinhala. Since the aim of generative syntax is to model the native speaker competence by examining his performance, this study too relied on such native speaker grammatical judgments. Although the researcher himself is a native speaker of Sinhala, it was still necessary to rely on a rather larger corpus. Hence, a sample of 10 native speakers representing different age groups was selected. This included 03 children aged between 8-13, and 6 adults in the age group of 30-60. The researcher too was considered as a member of the sample. About 40 sentences were presented to them with different ordering of modality particles. This was necessary in order to judge the scope properties of such modal particles, in addition to testing accuracy of the utterances. The utterances included both matrix and embedded sentences. Results And Discussion A classification of the modals in Sinhala is presented in Table 1 below. The table illustrates a number of significant properties of Sinhala modals. Of the epistemic modals, evidential, evaluative, epistemic (except epistemic possibility), and interrogative attach to the fully inflected verb, i.e. they attach to the present, past, future, and past participle verbal forms which may be inflected for indicative/ imperative/hortative/volitive/and future/irrealis moods of the verb. But in root/event modalities, the modalities of ability, permission and prohibition, only the infinitive/imperative verb forms are allowed. Narrow scope marking by the modal is not possible here. As the examples show, one major morpho-syntactic phenomenon associated with Sinhala modality is the special form the verb assumes when such modal particle is present in the clause. That is, the verb takes a special –e suffix, in the present and past tenses. This differential behavior of the –e suffix highlights two things: (1) it is not simply the modal particle that determines the contrastive modal interpretation, but the verbal inflection also takes part in this process. (2) It shows the scope marking potential of the modal particle and the corresponding verbal morphology.2 That is, when the modal particle attaches to any phrase level constituent, the verb inflects for –e. This creates a set of alternatives out of which one individual/entity is given saliency. But, when the same particle attaches to the whole clause, it does not inflect for the –e suffix indicating that the alternative set is not available in this instance. Table 1: Epistemic and Root Modals in Sinhala: < table > The three modals (epistemic possibility, root ability and root permission) can occur in embedded clauses. The evaluative, evidential and epistemic (vage) modalities are not part of the embedded periphery. Table 2 illustrates their properties. Table 2: Properties of the Modals < table > Conclusion The root/epistemic distinction hold in Sinhala not only semantically but also syntactically. In line with Cinque (1999), I propose that epistemic modals occur higher in the structure while the root modals occur closer to the vP so that the former takes scope over the latter. Sinhala modals show hierarchy not only with respect to epistemic-root distinction, but also among each other. Further, I consider the –e suffix as an overt reflex of an AGREE relation, i.e., a Spec-Head relation. The head orders of the modal functional heads can be illustrated as follows. MD Speech Act > T> INT > MD Evaluative > Md Evidential > Md Epistemic possibility (Puluwan)/Md Epistemic (vage) > Sent Neg (Naeahe) / Md Prohibitive (epa) / Possibility Neg (Baehae) > Root Modal ability/permission (Puluwan) > vP
Sources of child malnutrition in Radella estate: a comparative analysis of selected determinants as revealed by national studies
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Kamalrathne, T.; Nanayakkara, V.; Chamikara, M. A. P.; Wijesinghe, S.
Introduction Malnutrition is a significant health issue for children under five in developing countries today. United Nations (2007) revealed that half of the world’s 150 million malnourished children live in the South Asian region and over 50 percent of all under five deaths are caused by malnutrition. Sri Lanka’s Demographic and Health Survey (2006/07) confirmed that the prevalence rate of stunting is 18% while wasting and underweight are 15% and 22%, respectively. Further, the estate sector reported the highest stunting and underweight prevalence rates compared to the other sectors. The objective of the study is to identify the most prevalent sources of child malnutrition in the estate sector. It seeks to examine the relevance of what have been identified as ‘socio-economic determinants’ of child malnutrition in national level surveys (DHS 2006/07; NFSA 2009; UNICEF 2011) for under-five malnutrition in the estate sector. Methodology The Nuwara Eliya district of the Central Province in Sri Lanka was selected as the research area where the highest prevalence rate of child malnutrition is reported (DHS 2006/07; NFSA 2009). The baseline survey conducted by Child Fund Sri Lanka1 on the levels of malnutrition among children below five years in Nuwara Eliya was used in this study as its sampling frame. According to the survey results, Radella Estate recorded the highest prevalence rate (44%) and was therefore selected as the study area. The study utilized a comparative research design to compare and contrast the malnourished and non-malnourished groups of children. All the malnourished children (40) in the estate, who were reported to be growth retardates for an observation period of three months, were purposively selected for the malnourished group. Another 40 children were selected for the non-malnourished group through simple random sampling. The study utilized a mixed method of survey, observation and focus group discussions to obtain data. The Kolmogorov - Smirnov Test and the Shapiro-Wilk Tests were used to test the normality of the dataset. For statistical comparison between the malnourished and non-malnourished datasets, the Mann-Whitney U test was used when the dependent variable was not normally distributed, while the Paired sample t-test was used to compare the differences between two normally distributed independent groups. SPSS 21 software package was used for quantitative data analysis. Findings and Discussion ‘Determinants’ or sources2 identified by national and regional level research were re-tested in the current research to assess their relevance and applicability. Therefore, eleven key sources and another eleven specific sources; all together twenty two were examined in the study. All key sources were statistically tested and other specific sources were tested by using a mixed method, including quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis using in-depth data gathered by Focus Group Discussions and individual interviews. The Mann-Whitney U test and the paired sample t-test were carried out to test the significance of each source in differentiating between the malnourished and the non- malnourished groups, at 0.05% significance level. Table 1 presents the applicability and relevance of the eleven key sources identified in understanding child malnutrition in the estate sector. A significant difference indicates that a greater emphasis has to be laid upon the corresponding source as it has a potential impact on child malnutrition. Table 1.Sources of Child Malnutrition in Radella Estate < table > Source: Field Research, 2014. In addition to the above key sources, the applicability of the following were also investigated quantitatively and qualitatively through the survey conducted in Radella Estate. Table 2 reports results of the significance of specific sources of malnutrition based on qualitative data gathered from focus group discussions, observation and the case study method. Table 2.Qualitative Identification of Significant Sources of Child Malnutrition < table > Source: Field Research, 2014. According to the above results, among eleven key sources which were tested under the national level, only six were statistically proven to be significant and relevant. Further, it is observed that, among eleven specific sources tested, only two are significant. Conclusion The results imply the possibility that some of the factors identified as determinants at the national level may no longer be valid in understanding under-five malnutrition in the estate sector. Most of the studies carried out in the national level seem to be surveys and, thus, important in-depth causal factors have been somewhat neglected. Hence, further identification and confirmation of specific determinants is called for.
Inter-seasonal and intra-seasonal trends in the rainfall of Kandy
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Meegahakotuwa, U.; Rekha Nianthi, K. W. G; Rambukkange, M. P.
Introduction The Central Highlands are an important catchment area for the river systems of Sri Lanka. Hence, the inter-seasonal and long-term trends in rainfall of the Central Hills of Sri Lanka have been studied widely. Malmgren et al. (2003) is such a study in which the monthly average rainfall data of about 130 years between 1870 and 2000 were examined. They concluded that some stations in Central Highlands demonstrate a decrease in the South West Monsoon rainfall (SWM), but no statistically significant upward or downward trend exists for the North East Monsoon (NEM). During the First Inter-Monsoon (FIM) and Second Inter- Monsoon (SIM) the only statistically significant trend in the Central Highlands was the decreasing trend observed in Nuwara Eliya. Other studies using shorter time series also report decreasing trends during SWM rainfall in the Central Highlands (e.g., Rekha & Punyawardana 2003 and Wickramagamage 2015). The Central Hilly region probably has the most variable and complex regional rainfall pattern in Sri Lanka, so it is difficult to generalize results for this region, unlike the lowland regions. For example, out of the Central Highland stations considered in Malmgren et al. (2003), Kandy and Nuwara Eliya stations show a significant decreasing trend in the SWM, but not Badulla and Diayalalawa stations. In the FIM and SIM seasons, Kandy, Badulla and Diyathalawa do not show an upward or downward trend, but Nuwara Eliya exhibits a decreasing trend. In this study, the longest available total monthly rainfall record of Kandy was examined to identify intra-seasonal, inter-seasonal and long-term changes in rainfall. Methodology The data used in the study are the 12 month rainfall totals during a year from 1875 to 2014 obtained from the Katugastota weather station of the Department of Meteorology1. The time series of the maximum and minimum monthly rainfall observations were examined to identify intra- seasonal shifts or rearrangements of the highest and lowest rainfall producing months of the year. To identify long-term trends in rainfall, the NEM, FIM, SWM and SIM seasonal rainfall totals were plotted in time series. The Mann-Kendall statistical test was applied to distinguish between significant and non-significant monotonic trends in the seasonal time series. In order to identify periods with anomalous rainfall, a time series of rainfall anomalies was constructed. The anomaly for a particular year was obtained by subtracting the average value of the mean of the total monthly rainfall (time series) from the mean of the total monthly rainfall values of that year. Results and Discussion Figure 1 shows the months of the year in which the maximum and minimum monthly rainfall occurred. For the period before 1944, the maximum monthly rainfall of the year occurred 20 times in October and 15 times in November. However, after 1944, October had the highest rainfall only 15 times and November has recorded the highest rainfall 23 times. Fig. 1 suggests changes in SWM period, because June shows fewer maximum annual rainfall occurrences after 1944 than before 1944. Moreover, after the early 1960s, the month of May has not become maximum rainfall producing month, instead, it recorded only minimum annual rainfall events. < chart > Figure 1: time series of months with maximum and minimum annual rainfall. The vertical black dashed line indicates the midpoint in time (i.e., 1944). < chart > Figure 2: time series of seasonal rainfall and monthly maximum rainfall (top right). Figure 2 displays the FIM, SWM, SIM and NEM season rainfall totals in grey dashed, black, black dashed and grey colored, respectively. All the seasons demonstrate significant year-to-year variations. However, trend analyses of the rainfall amounts in the FIM, SIM and NEM seasons do not show a monotonic decreasing or increasing trend at the 95% confidence level according to the Mann-Kendall statistical test. In contrast, the SWM rainfall amount demonstrates a decreasing trend at the same level of confidence. The negative slope of the equation of the linear regression line (black line) shows a 2.6 mm drop in the SWM. Even the application of robust regression to minimize the influence of outliers produced a 2.4 mm decrease in SWM rainfall per year (black dashed line).The top figure reveals that, in the last 6 decades, rainfalls in excess of 1000 mm have not occurred unlike in previous decades, which suggests the reduction of maximum rainfall amount during the SWM. < chart > Figure 3: time series of the positive and negative monthly rainfall anomalies and histograms of the negative and positive anomalies (on top ) The black dashed vertical lines in Fig. 3 indicate the years used to divide the time series into three 45-year periods. In the two earlier periods, the positive anomalies were larger in magnitude than the negative anomalies, but in the later 45 years, the opposite case is true. The positive and negative anomaly histograms summarize the results of the long-term anomaly graph. In the two earlier periods, the positive anomalies were common, indicated by grey and white bars. However, in the latter period the rainfall anomalies are mostly negative. Conclusion The FIM, SIM and NEM seasons do not show a significant rainfall trend, but the SWM season rainfall demonstrates a statistically significant decreasing trend. The drop in the SWM season rainfall is 2.4 mm per year. The month of June shows fewer annual maximum rainfall occurrences after 1944 than before 1944. After the 1960s the month of May has not exhibited maximum rainfalls, instead it had only annual minimum rainfall events. The study also reveals that in the last 6 decades, rainfall in excess of 1000 mm has not occurred unlike in previous decades. The recent 45 year period clearly shows that rainfall climate of Kandy has shifted into overall negative anomaly. Why rainfall is decreasing in Kandy during SWM season cannot be properly understood without a good knowledge about clouds over the Central Highlands. A ground-based cloud observation system is not available in Sri Lanka. Such a system must be established in order to study clouds over Sri Lanka.
Women, politics and poison: a comparison of the Jjulio-Claudian empire and the Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa periods of Sri Lanka
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Jayathilake, A. M. K. H. K
Introduction Roman women played an important and a decisive role in politics during the Julio-Claudian Empire (14-68 AD) of Rome despite the commonly held view that the female energy and activity in Roman politics had been suppressed by male political chauvinism.1 In ancient patriarchal Sri Lanka, men had narrowed down the space where women could exercise and exhibit power2. However, during the Anuradhapura (377 BC-1017 AD) and Polonnaruwa (1055-1255 AD) periods, several powerful queens showed great dynamism through their direct and indirect political participation.3 Interestingly, women in Rome and Sri Lanka used poison and conspiracy as the means of demonstrating their political power. Objective The purpose of this study is to examine how the political dynamism of the ancient royal women found expression through poison and conspiracy in the world of men. This study will focus on a comparative study of the empresses Livia Drusilla and Agrippina the Younger from the Julio- Claudian Empire and the queens Anula and Leelavathi of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa periods of Sri Lanka. Though references have been made in various works referring to women’s resort to poison and conspiracy in their political activity in ancient Rome and Sri Lanka,4 the two contexts have not been brought into one platform where a parallelism could be drawn. Also, the subject has not been studied with adequate reference to male political chauvinism. Methodology This study is a qualitative research using both primary (ancient sources) and secondary (modern scholarly analyses) literary sources such as Mahawamsa (5th C CE) and the works of Tacitus (109 A.C.E) and Suetonius (121 AD), and the works of Bauman and Kiribamune respectively. Analysis of qualitative data, categorization and streamlining of those data to definite patterns of female reliance on poison and conspiracy, and comparative analysis of the two female groups were used in this study. Results and Discussion Richard A. Bauman says “Although never allowed to hold office or to vote, Roman women played an important, and often -in spite of determined resistance- decisive role in public affairs” Women and Politics in Ancient Rome (1994). This is a positive view opposed to Sirima Kiribamune's oriental ideology that features women's “precarious”5 position in politics and in which the Sri Lankan queens are viewed as “mere pawns in the game of politics”,6 despite their exhibition of great scale political dynamism. Citing Tacitus, a reliable source among modern critics, Jayasekara mentions that emperor Augustus' wife Livia led conspiracies against Augustus’ potential successors, intending to make Tiberius, her son from the previous marriage, the successor.7 According to Tacitus, Livia allegedly poisoned Augustus8 to ensure Tiberius' enthronement and gradually exercised limitless power hindering Tiberius' imperial authority.9 Similarly, Agrippina the Younger, the wife of Emperor Claudius, led conspiracies against her enemies and, with her overbearing persona, persuaded Claudius to declare Nero, her son from a previous marriage, his successor.10 Referring to Suetonius's view of Agrippina as an “ambitious, masculine and despotic” empress, Jayasekara reflects on the political dynamism explicit in Agrippina who even killed Claudius with poisoned mushrooms.11 Further, the fact that Nero assassinated her12 shows the extent to which Agrippina's use of overweening power challenged the male political chauvinism. Thus both these women played a decisive role in politics through their resort to poison and conspiracy. In Sri Lanka, queen Anula of Anuradhapura (48-44 B.C) used her seductiveness as a tool of self-empowerment and wielding sovereign authority.13 Based on Mahawamsa, Kiribamune mentions that during her rule of four months, Anula killed five husbands, the last of whom she killed in favor of political autonomy yet, by means of overrating the notion that kingship was “a man's preserve”,14 Kiribamune seems to downplay the female energy manifested in Anula, as she remarks that Anula assumed control only after her husbands.15 Leelawathi of Polonnaruwa, who ruled the country thrice from 1197- 1209 AD, obtained power owing to the conspiracies of the supportive generals16 and exercised sovereign authority over the country. In this regard, Kiribamune's view of women being “political pawns” and owing their empowerment to a chaotic situation where men had no “legitimate right” to rule, is noteworthy. For, Kiribamune seems to have disregarded the female might and potential that facilitated queens such as Leelawathi to come to power repeatedly amid resistance. Further, with regard to both these queens, Kiribamune's view of female empowerment as the “last resort” is contestable since similar to the powerful Roman empresses who were resisted by males, both Anula and Leelawathi were challenged by males for the political dynamism they exercised despite their gender.17 Thus, the Roman women showed an advanced political dynamism in overthrowing a powerful male through poison and conspiracy in order to empower another male. It signifies subordination to male dominance but, the very subordination was challenged by these women by dominating over the new rulers.18 The Sri Lankan women succumbed to men but exercised power by manipulating them through feminine charm. All the examples of royal women, however, show how female political dynamism survived amid male political chauvinism, though with resistance. Conclusion As shown above poison and conspiracy facilitated the ancient Sri Lankan queens to exercise more power and authority than Roman women, as they directly ruled the country themselves, while the latter empowered their sons and found legitimacy for self-empowerment. In both contexts the desire for self-empowerment, due to which they inflicted harm upon males, and sometimes upon women, drove them to exercise immense political dynamism. The fact that all these females experienced a wave of resistance by males suggests the intensity of female political dynamism in the two highly male chauvinist backgrounds. Thus, from the position of mere “pawns” the ancient Roman and Sri Lankan women's position can be elevated to a sphere where they played a decisive role in politics as they displayed political dynamism against male political chauvinism.
Poverty and voting behavior: an electoral geographical analysis
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Indhumathy, S.
Introduction Voting patterns in Sri Lanka have tended to follow swings between the United National Party (UNP) and the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP)/People’s Alliance (PA)/United People’s Freedom Alliance (UPFA). In recent times, the presidential election has seen substantial votes being garnered by an alternative party, the New Democratic Front (NDF). These trends are usually associated with socio-economic- political factors. While these factors have been studied, the role of poverty has not been specifically investigated in explaining election outcomes. Despite reasonable per capita income growth, the prevalence of pockets of poverty in Sri Lanka have been evidenced and measured in terms of their impact on overall measures of poverty in the country. Surveys by the Department of Census and Statistics have highlighted either the rural or the estate sector as having the highest incidence of consumption poverty at a particular time. It can be speculated that poverty as a distinct socio-economic variable could influence voter behavior. A person’s socio-economic status has been found to have influenced their vote in some studies. In many countries those who belong to high socio- economic status tent to support conservative parties while people with low socio-economic status tent to be supportive of leftist parties Handelman (1998). In contrast, Inglehart (1990) finds that the impact of social and economic status on elections is very low. The main objective of this study is to test for a relationship between poverty and voting behavior in Sri Lanka. Methodology The approach was to test for any association (correlation) between poverty and (presidential) elections results at district level. Poverty was measured by the official Poverty Headcount Ratio (PHR) compiled by the Department of Census and Statistics through their periodic surveys covering 1990/1991, 1995/1996, 2002, 2006/2007, 2009/2010, and 2012/2013. PHR data for all the electoral districts was available only since 2010, due to the earlier civil war situation. The PHR was matched with data from the Department of Elections for the 1988, 1994, 1999, 2005, 2010 and 2015 elections. This was done by creating PHR and election maps using GIS, and then constructing both variables as categorical (binary) variables. The null hypothesis was specified as no relationship between poverty and voting behavior. Fisher’s Exact Test was used to find test for correlation through cross tabulation, using SPSS. Results and Discussion Table 1. District-wise distribution of poverty status and election result < table > Results of the test for different years are given in Table 2 below. As per the probability values at 5% level, the null hypothesis of no correlation between poverty and election results cannot be rejected (no probability value was calculated for 1994 because there are no observed and expected values for one category). It is possible that factors other than absolute (consumption) poverty, such as historical voting patterns, caste, religion, culture, factors specific to each generation, influence of media, education, ethnicity, etc. exert a greater influence on voter behavior. At the same time, the district could be too large a unit to capture the relationship, compared with, e.g. a Grama Niladhari Division. Also, missing data for some years could have distorted the result. Table 2. Probability Value of correlation < table > Conclusion The study objective was to test for any correlation between poverty at district level and voters’ decision on whether or not to return the ruling party to power at presidential elections. Districts were classified according to whether their Poverty Headcount Ratio fell below or above the national PHR. Fisher’s Exact Test was used to find test for correlation. According to the test results, there is no correlation between the poverty headcount ratio and the probability of a party winning the election. We are forced to conclude tentatively that voting behavior is not related to poverty. Such a conclusion may hold if factors other than poverty are more important for election results. Alternatively the result may be due to the specific measure of poverty used, or the unit of analysis (district) being too large, compared with, e.g. a GN division. Hence the hypothesis needs further testing by refining the poverty and voting behavior variables, and narrowing down the regional unit of analysis.
Management system of monastic life represented in the pali canon.
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Ven. Anuruddha, S.
Introduction Management is very important to do anything in a better way. Where there is no proper management social, economic and political problems are unavoidable. Therefore, organizations must have a management system. When imposing rules and regulations, putting them into operation and making the public aware of programs of the government and civil organizations, why do many institutions whether government or private sector degenerate day by day? This paper, examines the management procedure utilized by the Buddha to create an ideal monastic life. The objectives of this study are to introduce the way of management in the monastic life, to apply Buddhist teachings of management to the current society, and to empower people with a better understanding of areas of management. Methodology This research is a literary survey. In this research I propose to discuss the management system of monastic life based on the Pali Canon and its Commentaries. Although this is not a comparative study, I wish to study and refer to sources related to modern management studies. Results and Discussion In early texts, the term used for monastery is ārāma. This word has been interpreted in different ways. According to Sinhala Vishvakoshaya "ārāma means the place which interests the mind, the place where monks dwell, the garden that has trees and creepers with fruits and flowers, and play ground." The Encyclopedia of Buddhism defines the word in the following way. "Arāma is a park, given to the Buddha or the Sangha for the benefit of the bhikkhus, where they meet and hold discussions about sacred and secular matters, a place of recreation and meditation, a meeting place for religious gatherings." The popularly known meaning of ārāma is the place where monks dwell. The ārāmas in that sense were well organized religious organizations. To be well organized there should be a good system of management. When we go through the Vinaya Pitaka, we can see the following areas in relation to the monastic management. Management of life style based on basic requirements The Buddha approves four basic needs for sustaining monks’ lives. They are clothing (Cīvara), Food (Pinḍapāta), Housing (Senāsana), Medicine (Gilānapaccaya bhesajja).1 The monks who renounced from all the worldly possessions had to sustain their lives with minimum requirements. And this practice was not a burden to lay people. They followed the "Bee theory". This way of life style really helps to develop good mental states such as simplicity, easily manageable, and satisfied with minimum. Finally, it is bound to the Nibbāna, the final goal of Buddhism. Management of material resources It is well known from the discussion between king Udena and Venerable Ananda that the Buddha arranged to get the maximum use of material resources. It was helpful to the easy of community and protection of resources. It will be clear from the following factors. * Departure after having monastic goods kept with protection. * Departure after having the residence place cleaned. * Departure after having the doors and windows closed. * If he is unable to do those things, he should inform to another monk, attendant or devotee.2 Management of surrounding environment We should not forget that monks are a spiritual community. Therefore, building up a pleasant environment is very essential for mental development. The Vattakkhandhaka of Vinaya Pitaka directs the person to manage the environment in detail. In whatever monastery monk is staying, if that monastery is dirty, he should clean it, should clean monastic materials, should clean surrounding area of monastery, should clean the alms halls and lavatories, and should clean Cetiya, Bo-tree and Vihāra. Management of interpersonal relationships As a community, management of interpersonal relationships is very important. Especially, the relationship between teacher and pupil is a main concern in this regard to show the right path to the other members. Teacher should look after pupils with parental concern. Similarly, pupils must look upon their teachers with filial concern. In the Sārānīyasutta of Anguttaranikāya, the Buddha declares six pieces of ethical advice for harmony and well-being of monks. Namely: * Living with physical loving kindness (mettenakāyakammam). * Living with verbal loving kindness (mettenavacīkammaṃ). * Living with mental loving kindness (mettenamanokammaṃ). * By sharing even a small thing with each other. * Working virtuously in every moment while associating with one another. * Seeing righteous in every moment while associating with one another.3 These facts help to attain peace and harmony in life and spiritual development of the disciples who depend on each other. Management of monastic members Duties of a monastery are allocated and assigned to some members within the community as follows: * Cīvarapaṭiggāhaka (Receiver of robes from donors. * Cīvarabhājaka (Distributor of robes among monks). * Yāgubhājaka (Distributor of rice gruel). * Phalabhājaka (Distributor of fruits). * Khajjabhājaka (Distributor of Sweets). * Bhanḍāgārika (Overseer of the store). The following members are appointed to manage monastic affairs for the convenience of resident and visiting monks. Senāsana paññāpaka (Officer for allocating rooms) Senāsana gahāpaka (Officer for directing visitor monks) Navakammaka (Officer in charge of maintenance work) Arāmika pesaka (Supervisor of attendants in the monastery) Sāmanera pesaka (Supervisor of the novices in the monastery) Munḍasayanāsana varika (Officer in charge of lodgings)4 Conclusion It is evident from above mentioned factors that Buddhist Vinaya texts show a well-organized management system of monastic life. Although this system of management is used within the monastic life, it is also applicable to the household life. This system of management is based on an ethical foundation and it is not law-bound, but duty-bound.
Public expenditure on education and health, and human capital formation in Sri Lanka 1990-2012
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Sumaiya , M. A. F.; Abayasekara, C.R.
Introduction Sri Lanka has a long tradition of public expenditure on education and health (Jayasuriya 1996). As ‘social welfare spending’, its role in generating relatively high living standards (Osmani 1993), and in undermining their sustainability – by impacting negatively on saving, investment and growth (Bhalla and Glewwe 1986, Kelegama 2006, Osmani 1993) have been hotly debated. In present times, such expenditures are seen as potentially contributing to the formation of human capital and thence, economic growth – especially in the context of a globalized ‘knowledge economy’ (World Bank 2009). Though recognized as a distinct factor of production (Becker 1964, Shultz 1961, Romer 1986, Lucas 1988), there is no universally accepted measure of the stock of human capital. Expenditures on education and health are often taken as proxies for human capital in explaining economic growth (e.g. Vimalendraraja (2005)1)2. This is not satisfactory if, in fact education and health expenditures impact on growth by raising the stock of human capital. The productivity of such expenditures should then be evaluated with respect to the human capital produced. The primary objective of this paper is to test the relationship between public expenditures on education and health and the formation of human capital in Sri Lanka – measured in terms of a human capital index3. Secondary objectives are to test for the existence of a short run relationship and long run equilibrium. Methodology A human capital index was first constructed as follows. Education- specific employment rates were obtained for four education categories and each rate was weighted by the average years of schooling corresponding to that category4. This ‘weighted employment rate’ was then multiplied by the estimated labor force5 to yield an ‘educationally weighted work-force’ as (annual values of) the index. The index closely follows that of Bergin and Kearney (2004), but differs from the latter by using average years of schooling instead of a subjective weight. The index was fitted to a regression model with real public expenditure on education, real public expenditure6 on health and real GDP as explanatory variables. Secondary data was obtained from annual reports of the Central Bank of Sri Lanka, Labor Force survey reports, the Household Income and Expenditure survey and the report on the Census of Population and Housing. Nominal variables were deflated using the Consumer Price Index. The time period was 1990 to 2012 as regular labor force survey data was not available prior to 1990. The vector error correction model was defined as 𝒍𝒏∆𝒚𝒕 =∝𝟎 + 𝚷 𝐥𝐧 𝒚𝒕−𝟏 +∑²ᵢ₌₁𝚯𝒊 𝐥𝐧∆𝒚𝒕−𝟏 + 𝑼𝒕 𝒚𝒕 = (𝑯𝒖𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙, 𝑷𝒖𝒃𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝑷𝒖𝒃𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒉, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑮𝑫𝑷 ) 𝒚𝒕−𝟏 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒍𝒂𝒈𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒚𝒕 𝚷 = 𝛂,𝜷, 𝛂, = 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒅𝒋𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝜷, = 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐 − 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔 𝑼𝒕~𝑵(𝟎, 𝟏) Results and discussion As per the Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) and Phillips Peron (PP) tests, all variables except Human Capital were non-stationary7 at their levels. Real education and health expenditure were stationary at their first differences and Real GDP was stationary at its second difference. All variables were integrated in order two (I(2)). The optimal lag length was selected as one, based on the Likelihood Ratio (LR), Hannan-Quinn information criterion (HQ), Final Prediction Error (FPE), and Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) tests8. Johansen’s co- integrating rank test suggested one co-integrating equation at 𝛼 = 0.1. The null was rejected at most 1 rank. So there was one co-integrating equation. The Error Correction Model was utilized to examine the presence and nature of a long run relationship (also yielding results for short run relationship, and long run equilibrium). The long run relationship from the co-integrating vector was as follows. 𝐻𝐶(−1) = 3.29 + 0.34 𝑅𝐸𝐷𝑈(−1) − 0.02 𝑅𝐺𝐷𝑃(−1) − 0.35 𝑅𝐻𝐸𝐿(−1) [5.42200] [-4.51482] [-3.03821] HC refers to the Human Capital Index, REDU is Real Public Expenditure on Education, RGDP represents Real Public Expenditure on Health, and RGDP is Real GDP. In the long run human capital is positively related to education expenditure, while health expenditure and GDP show negative relationships (in contrast to Vijesandiran and Vinayagathasan (2014) who obtained opposite coefficient signs for education and health). The impact of GDP is very small, while health and education exhibit approximately equal effects on human capital. The unexpected negative coefficient for health expenditure is possibly due to a combination of the following factors: Non-inclusion of a health dimension in the human capital index, the relatively short time period, and confounding factors – especially the effects of the internal armed conflict in the country, with some of health spending being directed towards the war effort. The short run relationship is given by 𝐻𝐶 = 0.60 − 0.22 HC (−1) − 0.24REDU(−1) + 0.001RGDP(−1) + 0.29RHEL(−1) [-0.73963] [-2.26033] [0.32083] [2.14012] Education and health are both significant, and here health spending has the ‘correct’ sign, but not education. Also, human capital moves towards its long run equilibrium path by 85% by each year, but long run equilibrium does not exist for education, health and GDP. Conclusion This study attempted to relate public spending on education and health to the formation of human capital in Sri Lanka during 1990-2012. In the long run, the stock of human capital was positively related to public expenditure on education, but negatively to (real) GDP and public health expenditure. The result for health expenditure may have been derived by the specific formula used to construct the human capital index, which included weights for schooling, but none for health10.Other possible reasons are; specific sub-periods experiencing a decline in the proportion of GDP devoted to health spending11, and health expenditures being directed towards the war effort than contributing to the formation of human capital. The result for GDP is more difficult to interpret as one would expect a positive relationship. One possibility is that the dominant patterns of growth during 1990-2012 would have been such as to favor the absorption of labor of relatively low skills12. The impacts of health and education on human capital are reversed in the short run. Study results indicate that spending on education contributes significantly to human capital formation over the long run. Recent calls for higher spending on education thus seem justified in terms of its impact on human capital. To carry this argument to the point of determining specific amounts of expenditure requires an assessment of the private and social rates of return to investment in education. Also, the other, counter- intuitive results merit further study, for instance by constructing alternative human capital indices.
Insider trading laws in Sri Lanka: identifying the ‘insider’ to combat white collar crimes
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Edirisinghe , A. A.
Introduction Insider Trading has been the subject of a widespread debate which continues to remain unsettled and inconclusive. One set of scholars favour deregulation of insider trading on the basis that insider trading promotes market efficiency and provides an efficient way to compensate entrepreneurs (Manne 1966, Edmund 1980) while the other set of scholars emphasize the importance of regulating insider trading on the basis of fairness and property rights in information (Kraakman 1991, Schotland 1967). Insider trading can be defined as trading in securities on the basis of material non-public information (Teal 2013, Bagley & Savage 2012). Despite the debates, most countries with stock exchanges regulate trade on confidential price sensitive information by corporate insiders (Beny 2006). In Sri Lanka, Insider Trading is basically regulated by the Securities and Exchange Commission of Sri Lanka Act (SEC Act) No. 36 of 1987 as amended by Acts No. 26 of 1991, 18 of 2003 and No. 47 of 2009 and Companies Act No. 7 of 2007. Since the end of civil war in 2009, the growth of the stock market in Sri Lanka has accelerated, achieving a growth unrivaled by most other economies. If Sri Lanka wants to attain long term market efficiency, customer confidence and market integrity are essential. Regulation of insider trading will have a positive impact on market efficiency and customer confidence as insider trading can undermine the public's expectations of honest and fair securities markets. Notwithstanding the debated benefits of deregulation of insider dealings, Sri Lanka will lose investor confidence and market integrity if insider dealings are left unregulated reversing the growth achieved in the stock market. In regulating insider dealings the definition of the ‘insider’ raises a question of significant importance. Traditionally this definition was confined to the corporate insiders, basically to the directors. However, now it is believed and has been proven that anyone connected with the company either directly or indirectly and has the access to material confidential information can engage in insider dealings without necessarily being a director or a corporate insider of the particular company. Since the offence of insider trading derives from the legislations in Sri Lanka it is important to analyze the comprehensiveness of the definition of the ‘insider’ under such legislations to effectively regulate insider dealings. The research problem which is sought to be answered in this study is whether Insider Trading legislations in Sri Lanka contain a comprehensive definition of the ‘insider’. The study has four basic objectives; to analyze the legal definition of the insider under the existing laws in Sri Lanka, find out the loopholes in such definition, compare that definition with that of the United Kingdom; and to suggest necessary amendments. Methodology This research is conducted using the black letter approach of research and comparative analysis method of research based on Securities and Exchange Commission of Sri Lanka Act No. 36 of 1987 (as amended) and Companies Act No. 7 of 2007 in Sri Lanka, and Financial Services and Markets Act (FSMA) of 2000 and Criminal Justice Act of 1993 in the United Kingdom as primary sources; and journal articles, conference proceedings and commentaries as secondary sources. The basic limitation of this method is that it does not satisfactorily takes into account the actual insider trading practices and the implementation of the existing legal framework. Results and Discussion The application of the provisions contained in the Companies Act No. 7 of 2007 with regard to the use of company information is restricted and applies only to ‘directors’. According to Section 197 of the Companies Act, a director of a company who has obtained information in his capacity as a director or employee is prohibited from disclosing, making use of or acting on the information except for the company’s purpose, when he is authorized to do so by the Board or the company or as required by law. Section 197(3) provides that the Board may authorize the director to disclose, use or act on the information if it is not likely to be prejudice the company. Thus it excludes other possible parties connected with the company in other capacities than a director, who may in different events disclose confidential information of such company to the outsiders. By contrast the definition in the Securities and Exchange Commission of Sri Lanka Act (SEC Act) is broad and covers a wider range of individuals. However, unlike the Companies Act that applies to all the companies, the application of the SEC Act is limited only to the listed companies thereby excludes non-listed companies. In the United Kingdom, FSMA Act of 2000 and the Criminal Justice Act of 1993 covers the offence of insider trading, thereby covers all the companies in the country. According to section 32 of the SEC Act, the individual must hold the information by virtue of being connected with the company. He shall respect the confidentiality of the information which he possesses and shall not disclose such information except for the proper performance of the functions attached to that position. Section 34 of the same Act defines the term ‘individual connected with the company’ to include director of that company or a related company or an officer (other than director) or an employee of that company or a related company or a person holding a position involving a professional or business relationship. The term professional or business relationship used in section 34 covers a wide range of individuals including auditors, lawyers, bankers and insurance agents. Such a wider definition is important since in practice the insider dealings by directors are relatively rare compared to the insider dealings by other individuals connected with the company. However, since the term ‘individual’ is used instead of ‘person’, artificial persons such as corporate entities as well as companies are excluded. This is a weakness in the definition of the ‘insider’ since the offenders can use a company as a shield to exclude their liability. By contrast United Kingdom uses the term ‘any person’ in section 118 B of the Financial Services and Markets Act in 2000 which covers both Legal Persons and Natural Persons thus providing a very progressive interpretation to the ‘insider’. Further according to the definition given in the SEC Act of Sri Lanka, a shareholder can hardly be regarded as an insider. This is particularly disadvantageous to the minority shareholders since under the controlling shareholder regime that exists in Sri Lanka there is a high possibility of inside information being abused by the majority shareholders for their own benefit. In UK shareholders are recognized as insiders by virtue of section 118 B of FSMA Act and section 57 of Criminal Justice Act, thus preventing shareholders from engaging in insider dealings. Conclusion The above discussion shows that the ‘insider’ as defined by the legislations in Sri Lanka is not comprehensive and is thus in need of improvements. The definition in the Companies Act No. 7 of 2007 should be widened to include the parties who are connected with the company in capacities other than the capacity of a director and has access to confidential material information. Securities and Exchange Commission of Sri Lanka Act should widen its definition of ‘insider’ to include legal persons and shareholders as well.
Islamophobia and sinhala buddhist nationalism on facebook
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Wazeer , A.; Jayaweera, C.
Introduction Islamophobia is defined as the contrived fear, prejudice, hatred or hostility towards Islam and Muslims. It is perpetuated through negative stereotypes, misrepresentation, and the construction of the Muslim as the ‘Other’, which leads to stigmatization and discrimination of Muslims. Post - war Sri Lanka has witnessed the creation of a new “enemy”; although anti-Muslim feelings existed much earlier, as evidenced by the 1915 and 1974-5 riots, critics have identified the attacks as being primarily motivated by economic disparity and educational inequalities1 unlike the recent hostility which is explicitly political in character. In recent times, the Muslim minority has been subjected to ethno-religious hostility from the Bodu Bala Sena (hereafter BBS), a movement that focuses on promulgating anti-Muslim rhetoric. In the creation and distribution of anti-Muslim narratives, pro-BBS supporters have taken to Facebook to articulate Islamophobic sentiments. Facebook, with its popularity and easy accessibility, has become a relatively important platform on which a cohesive constellation of thematic is formed resulting in the transmission of the BBS Islamophobic analogy to a vast audience within a matter of minutes. Unaware of the ways in which the pedagogies of these pages position and regulate one’s perspectives, members of such pages (un)consciously subsume its ideological messages as autonomous and independent representations of a coherent reality. Methodology For the purpose of the study, public Sri Lankan pages on Facebook, which promote anti-Muslim sentiments and Islamophobia was used as primary data. All the groups that were studied reveal a close affinity with and follow the ideology of the BBS. Documentaries, speeches and petitions of the BBS circulated on Facebook were analysed. Results and Discussion The anti-Muslim narrative of these pages resonate a global pattern of Islamophobia. Associating themselves with a transnational Islamophobic movement, the anti-Muslim rhetoric of these Facebook pages converges with the narratives of Western and Indian anti-Muslim movements to create at once an internationally induced and locally disseminated form of Islamophobia. The narratives of the BBS and other anti-Muslim groups on Facebook constantly direct their attention to international events involving Muslims but is also always mediated by Sri Lankan comparisons. When reporting violence perpetuated by Islamic extremists in other countries, by aligning it with the socio-political context of Sri Lanka, the narrative makes the information not just threatening, but also captures an urgency calling for an immediate reaction to ‘Islamic extremism’ in Sri Lanka. Whenever an anti-Muslim stance is espoused by Western politicians, it is reported as a model that the Sri Lankan government needs to embrace. The ban on the headscarf in France was celebrated in many posts whilst urging the audience to fight until the Sri Lankan government follows France’s commendable example. The basis of the local Islamophobic narrative can be located under three interrelated premises: (1) cultural otherness (2) economic insecurity2 and (3) expansionist politics. Muslims are constructed as threatening the very existence of Sinhala Buddhists in Sri Lanka. The locating of the ‘Muslim’ as the demonic other whose scheme is to annihilate the Sinhala race is intricately connected to the threat of “Islamic expansionism.” Islamophobia is justified under this paradigm of threat. Juxtaposed with the declining population of Buddhists is the ever-increasing Muslim population. In the BBS’s publication on demographics titled “Encountering the Demise of a Race: An Enquiry into the Population Trends in Sri Lanka”, it is claimed that the Muslims of Sri Lanka are striving to convert the country into “their next colony in an expanding Muslim empire, sought to be established by the Wahabbi movement spreading from the Middle East, Pakistan and Malaysia” (Liyanage, 2014). The rhetoric of the BBS abounds with the fear of globalization as a threat to Sinhala Buddhist hegemony, driven mainly by the belief that the minorities of Sri Lanka are more globally dominant than the Sinhala majority. In the alleged absence of international allies for the Buddhists, the Muslim minority is perceived as a threat due to its seeming facility to form connections with a powerful global political Islam. While the Muslims are depicted as having multiple “motherlands” (placing them within a homogenous Muslim Middle East), the Sinhalese are seen as having Sri Lanka as its only ‘motherland’. Invoking a sense of isolation, the narrative envisions a homogenous nation-state in which the hegemony of the Buddhist state exists unchallenged. The perceived fundamentalism of the Muslims makes them the ‘alien’ to the normalized ideas of the Sinhala society. It should be noted that the othering process is in turn posited by the Muslims themselves. As a result of globalization, with a greater knowledge of ‘Muslim issues’ around the world, there is an increasing identification with the global Islamic community among Muslims of Sri Lanka. The self-conscious turn of the Muslims towards the Islamic ideologies especially that of Saudi Arabia in recent times (the increase in the number of females choosing to wear the Abaya is itself indicative of the systemic assertion of Middle Eastern practices) has marked the Muslims as a conspicuous social other.3 Conclusion The nationalist rhetoric of the 1915 riots that identified the Muslim as a hostile economic competitor and an alien to the Sinhala Buddhist culture, has acquired a threatening urgency in the current anti-Muslim sentiment. Islamophobic expressions of anti-Muslim Facebook pages are demonstrated in a manner in which Islam is perceived as a fixed and static entity. By doing so, by readily equating Islam with any action of any Muslim, by generalizing that action as ‘Islamic’, a specific interpreted (reductive, monochromatic) picture of Islam is supplied which stamps and fixes the identity of Islam which in turn serves to create a confrontational political situation pitting ‘us’ against ‘Islam’. The change of government seems to have diminished the passion of the nationalist zealots; the public demonstrations and hate speeches of the BBS have significantly reduced, but the hatred and stigmatization of Muslims continue in the Facebook pages.
Impact of remittances on rural primary education: a case study of Galewela DS division, Kurunegala district
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Perera, M. A. M. I.; Wijeratna, M.; Peramunagama, S.S. M.
Introduction Among factors which contribute significantly to the improvement of a society’s standards of living, remittance inflows to Third World countries play an important role by contributing significantly to the economic welfare of households and overall economic conditions. Remittances are defined as monies earned or acquired by non-nationals that are transferred back to their country of origin. As foreign aid continues to shrink, and Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) flows remain vulnerable to fluctuating global economic developments, remittances have proved to be a more stable source of foreign exchange for many developing countries. Research on remittances and migration have tended to focus on the benefits of migration to home communities and members left behind through increases in household income (Arunatilake, 2010). But less attention has been paid to the impact of remittances on education - in particular primary education - of children in migrant households in rural communities. One study (Jayawardane, 2012) found that 49% of remittances were spent on non-food items and (only) 3% for education. Therefore this study focuses on the impact of remittance investment on productivity of rural primary education. Its importance stems from evidence that approximately 14 percent of children in the compulsory school going age do not attend school and only about a fifth of Grade 5 children attain mastery levels in writing and less in mathematics (Little, 2000). The objectives of the study are (to): 1. Identify the contribution of remittances towards primary child education; 2. Examine the productivity of remittance investments on education; and 3. Compare the level of primary child education among migrant and non- migrant families Methodology The data used in this study was collected through a household survey conducted in Galewela Divisional Secretariat (DS) Division in Kurunegala District using a pre-structured questionnaire. The selected sample which covered 45 beneficiaries of remittances was drawn using a multi-stage approach in which remittance-beneficiaries were purposively selected from Sampath Bank and out of that, 45 were randomly chosen. A sample of people without remittances was also selected using a multi- stage approach in which the list of residents was obtained from the Galewela Divisional Secretarial Office purposively and 45 were randomly chosen out of it after removing migrants. Both types of families included children obtaining primary education. Contribution of remittances for primary education was measured under five components and analyzed using descriptive analysis. The productivity of remittance investments on education was measured using five criteria and analyzed using Wilcoxon Sign Rank Test. The most significant factors affecting primary education were determined using regression analysis. Results and Discussion Contribution of remittances towards rural primary education was analyzed by considering the following expenditure items: tuition fees, school fees, school transport, extracurricular activities, and school lunch. For further confirmation, those expenditures were compared with non- migrant families. Average monthly expenditure (in Rupees) of migrant families for the above components were 1978, 194, 512, 788, and 1580, and for non-migrant families 1381, 88, 351, 369, and 1541, respectively. The total average monthly expenditure for primary education in migrant families was Rs.5052 and Rs.3730 in non-migrant families. This indicates that migrant households spend a bigger share of remittances on primary education than non-migrant families. It also supports the evidence of Nautus (2013) who found that 3.8% of remittance income is spent on education, with the increase in average remittances per person of one-hundred dollars per month corresponding to an increase in one grade level attained by the average person. In order to identify the productivity of remittance investment on primary education, parental perceptions of migrant families regarding selected criteria were investigated under the categories of “highly improved”, “improved”, “no change”, “decreased”, “highly decreased” and analyzed using the Wilcoxon Sign Rank Test. Results are given below. Table 1. Productivity of remittance investments on primary education as per parental perceptions < table > From parents’ perceptions, productivity of primary education has significantly increased after the remittance investment as all the values are significant at 5% significance level. This finding can be supported by the evidence of Hu (2013) that remittances play a positive role in promoting the children’s education performance in rural areas. But when comparing the primary education productivity between the children in migrant and non-migrant families according to the parental perception using two sample t-test for the above mentioned five criteria in table 1, it has been revealed that there is no impact of remittance investment on primary educational productivity and signals the influence of some other factors that affect education productivity apart from remittances. A regression analysis was done in order to determine the significant variables that affect the productivity of education (Table 2). Productivity of education was measured by the improvement in the academic records of the children. In computing the parental relationship of the migrant to the children, “1= mother” and “0= father”. Table 2. Regression analysis for factors affecting productivity of primary education. According to the above results the most decisive factors - apart from the share of remittances spent on education - affecting children’s education are parental relationship of migrant to the children and time allocation of mother for children’s education. The negative coefficient of parental relationship of migrant implies that primary educational productivity declines with the absence of the mother. Therefore the positive impact of spending remittances on children’s education is diminished when a parent (especially the mother) is absent. The mother’s presence is arguably important to guide the children properly and direct the remittances in an effective manner that can be used in improving the education status of the children. Conclusion A portion of remittances are spent for children’s education, resulting in an improvement of their schooling outcomes. However, this effect is strengthened when the mother of the child is present at home, rather than being the migrant, and is further improved with increasing time spent by the mother helping with their children’s learning.
Leisure reading habits of Dental Sciences undergraduates at the University of Peradeniya : a pilot study
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Premarathne , B. N. G. S.; Bandara , B. E. S.
Introduction Leisure reading habits of undergraduates have not been widely studied in most universities. Leisure reading is the reading students choose on their own, as opposed to reading that is assigned to them. Also referred to as ‘voluntary reading’, ‘independent reading’, ‘spare time reading’, ‘recreational reading’, ‘reading outside of the university’ and ‘self- selected reading’, leisure reading involves personal choice, choosing what one wants to read, and reading widely from a variety of sources not just a book. Dental Sciences undergraduates at the University of Peradeniya have to cover continuous assignments, practical clinical assignments, viva voce assessments and other study commitments required by the faculty. This keeps students busy and they have difficulty in finding time to visit libraries or otherwise engage in leisure reading. Leisure reading is essential for any person to acquire current information, to spend spare time wisely, as a hobby, for literary knowledge, and also to gain knowledge in their subjects of interest. Therefore the present study will be of great significance for all to identify current existing leisure reading habits of undergraduates, barriers for allocating more time for reading, and suggestions to overcome those barriers. The main objective of this study was to identify leisure reading habits of the undergraduates of the Faculty of Dental Sciences. Additional objectives were, to identify their favorite reading materials at leisure time, frequency of leisure reading and barriers for leisure reading, and to make recommendations to improve leisure reading habits of the undergraduates. Methodology The survey research method was applied to this study and a structured questionnaire was distributed among the undergraduates who visited the Dental Sciences Library during the first week of November 2015. Only second, third, fourth year Bachelor of Dental Sciences (BDS) undergraduates were selected for this survey, with a total student population of 258. Convenience sampling was used to select the sample as this is a pilot survey. First Year students were not selected as they had registered for the course only in October 2015. The questionnaire was distributed among 62 students, with 49 completed questionnaires returned, yielding a response rate of 79%. These students were asked to specify their preference of leisure reading, time spent for leisure reading, hobbies, type of reading materials used for reading, barriers for reading in their leisure time and the use of the library for their leisure reading. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistical methods. Results and discussion Leisure time activities of students The questionnaire asked for the time allocation of students in various types of leisure time activities. The following graph (Figure 1) shows the percentages of their behavior pattern of leisure time activities. 53% of the students use their leisure time for reading books ‘sometimes’ but 31% ‘often’ read books at leisure time. Students have shown a lower priority (about 26% students) to read newspapers. More than 25% of the students watched television ‘often’ in their leisure time. More than 30% of the students played computer games ‘sometimes’. (An equal percentage of students ‘rarely’ played computer games). 30% of the students ‘rarely’ used leisure time for sports activities. This shows that they give less priority for the sports activities. The majority of the students reported that they are willing to attend music, drama in their leisure time. There was a positive response with regard to activities such as music and drama. It seems that students are more engaged in activities connected with music and drama in comparison with reading books and newspapers. < bar Chart > Figure 1: Activities involved in leisure time Key: 1 Watching TV 2 Playing computer games/video games 3 Reading Books 4 Reading newspapers 5 Playing games/sports 6 Music programs /Drama/Listening music Reading material in leisure time Table 1 shows student responses pertaining to the most interested areas which they like to read on. Novels / Short Stories took first place with a rate more than 45%. More than 30% of students like to read newspapers and magazines. In contrast, 6% stated that they do not like to read books and prefer playing software games. Table 1: Reading material at leisure time < table > Purpose of reading at leisure time Students were asked the purpose of reading at leisure time. Figure 2 shows that the students positively responded to the statements given in the questionnaire. < bar chart > Figure 2: Purpose of reading in leisure time Key: 1 Improve language skills 2 Pass time or to relax 3 Learn new things 4 Reading as a hobby 5 Brain stimulation 6 Pleasure or enjoyment 7 Reduce stress 67% agreed with the statement of learning new things and 53% with reading as a hobby as the purpose of reading in leisure time. 39% agreed that they read for the purpose of brain stimulation. According to the above statistics, the students have agreed with all the statements given in the questionnaire with a higher than 35% rate. Most of the students would like to read in leisure time to learn new things. The second priority has been to pass the time or to relax. They also would like to read for pleasure or enjoyment and for brain stimulation. Reasons for minimum time allocation for leisure reading Students were asked about the minimum time allocation for reading in leisure time. The following graph (Figure 3) shows that the majority of the students prefer to spend their leisure time with friends. They have too many assignments, practical sessions and have to read subject related textbooks and notes to prepare for examinations. Therefore allocating time for leisure reading is a challenge. More than 30% have agreed with all statements. It shows that they have severe issues with time allocation for leisure reading. Figure 3: Reasons for minimum time allocation for leisure reading Key: 1 Prefer to watch TV 2 Prefer to spend time with friends 3 Like surfing on the web 4 Too busy or no time to read 5 Difficult to find a suitable book 6 Reading makes me tired 7 Too many assignments and practical sessions 8 Have to read subject related textbooks and notes to prepare for exams Conclusion The students of the Faculty of Dental Sciences at Peradeniya have a positive attitude towards leisure reading. A majority of the students read books, newspapers and magazines. The students stated the main reason for not engaging in leisure reading as their having many assignments. They also prefer to spend time with friends in their leisure time and have to read subject related textbooks and notes for examination prparation. Therefore, allocating time for leisure reading is a difficult task. A lesser number of students don’t like to read and they use their leisure time for sports, computer games, watching T.V. etc. Leisure reading is essential for students’ mental relaxation, acquiring new knowledge, enjoyment, development of language skills etc. Therefore, it is very essential to promote leisure reading habits among the students. The following recommendations might be of assistance for future planning. 1). Encouraging students to use leisure reading materials the same as text books. 2). Library awareness should be expanded to all categories of students in order for them to use various types of reading materials. 3). National campaigns promoting the recreational reading aspect of libraries. 4). Create leisure reading corners at hostels, common rooms and other public places and provide multicultural resources that are relevant to students lives, as well as resources in their first language. 5). Training and networking to share the knowledge of experienced staff. 6). Organize seminars or workshops to promote their literary awareness. 7). Motivate students to watch award winning films, dramas as part of promoting reading. 8). Library allocation should increase for purchase the leisure reading materials.
Living with vulnerabilities: exploring gendered vulnerability to tropical Cyclone Winston in a Fijian village
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Azmi , F.
Introduction This paper is the outcome of a research project presently undertaken by the author on “Gender and Natural Disasters in Fiji”. The objective of this paper is to understand the gendered vulnerability to category five Tropical Cyclone Winston that made land fall on the 20th and 21st of February 2016 on the islands of Northern Viti Levu and Southern Vanua Levu. The research was conducted in a Fijian village in the Province of Tailevu in Viti Levu. Although natural disasters, especially cyclones have been researched in Fiji, the gender dimension is not widely addressed. Using qualitative methods, the paper discusses how gender is an important dimension to consider in the context of understanding hazards and vulnerability. Methodology Considering the increasing incidence of natural disasters and their varying impacts, during the last four decades, ‘gender’ has become a cross cutting theme in the disaster literature (Bradshaw 2009). The social, cultural and behavioral traits associated with a man or woman in a society defines his or her ‘gender identity, roles and responsibilities’ (Moser and Moser 2005). Therefore, a man’s or woman’s vulnerability during a hazard is related to their pre- assigned roles and responsibilities in the domestic and public spheres, access to communal resources, role in decision making, degree of power and access to knowledge. Oxfam (2011) proposes that hazards can become a disaster when they hit a vulnerable community that does not have the capacity to respond and protect itself from an event. Thus, hazards affect people differently as they are located in different social and natural terrains. According to the UN (2004,13) “Vulnerability should be considered in a broad context encompassing specific human, sociocultural, economic, environmental and political dimensions that relate to social inequalities based on age, gender, ethnicity and economic division”. While taking note of the multidimensional nature of vulnerability, this definition highlights the fact that during a disaster, some groups in a society become more prone to its affects than others. Informed by the above theoretical background, three key informant interviews, one focus group discussion and five individual semi structured interviews with women were conducted. The methods employed fitted well with the research objective and were consistent with feminist methodologies. Recorded data were transcribed and coded for emerging themes during the analysis. Results and Discussion The findings discussed in this paper highlight the importance of examining pre-existing gendered vulnerability factors to hazards. The informants identified different types of pre-existing vulnerability factors. They were grouped in to four categories. In this paper two types of vulnerabilities will be discussed. Socio Cultural Vulnerability As Tailevu’s life is centred on shared needs and communal living, and gender needs, roles and identities are defined by a social hierarchy. The traditional norm in the village does not give women an equal status with men. Women’s mobility outside the village is limited due to gender roles, therefore their knowledge of early warning and precaution measures before, during and after a hazard are also restricted. The social expectation of having large families makes women bear many children risking their health and increasing their responsibilities during and after a hazard. After the cyclone women in the village were expected to look after the injured and children, cook for the villagers in the transition camps and were also expected to be responsible for providing a healthy environment for the family while putting themselves at risk. Their contribution in economic decision-making is minimal due to gendered ideologies. Although women were powerful at the household level decision-making, they were hardly visible at the community level. During the focus group, it was understood that old women like to continue the traditional life style without challenging the ‘order of the village’. Economic Vulnerability Women interviewed were mainly engaged in agriculture and fishing. They grew root crops, which satisfy their weekly food needs. The balance was sold in the market. Women planted these root crops on reserve land. They did not have direct access to communal land. During the focus group discussions women discussed how they were involved in fishing mainly for family consumption and sometimes to sell at the market. Even fishing comes under a customary fishing right, which is under the control of the tribal chief. Access to land and water resources for livelihood shows women’s dependency, economic insecurity and their increased vulnerability after a hazard as access to natural resources is also through patrilineal means. As a result of the cyclone, women lost all their agricultural crops and their economic means for survival were completely destroyed. This resulted in a drastic decline in their sources of income. The garden plots were severely affected after the cyclone challenging the possibility of subsistence farming in the foreseeable future. The cyclone also affected the locations women used to go fishing, threatening the household food security. Women were worried about their inability to ensure food security for their families. A few young and middle aged women in the village have already started to work as house girls in the nearest town for a very low daily wage. Some expressed an interest in involving in non- agriculture related employment in the village. However they did not have any knowledge or capital to start a business. Some women were interested in restarting traditional craft making which was abandoned some decades before. In sum women’s economic recovery after this cyclone could be expected to be challenging and slow. Conclusion The findings of the study show that pre-existing vulnerabilities in the village in terms of socio cultural and economic aspects have escalated women’s vulnerabilities after the cyclone. Gendered inequalities and related vulnerabilities were clear in the village in different domains, though they were not internalized by women in the village as an issue. During the fieldwork, it became very clearly that women did not want to dismantle the traditions and culture of the village as they value them. The research highlights how gender is a cross cutting theme in hazard impacts as vulnerabilities differ according to the social construction of men and women.
Recognizing the right to die with dignity in Sri Lanka: the dilemma between morality and law
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Ratnayake , R.M.T.S.K.; Udagama, N.D.
Introduction Terminally ill patients sometimes prefer to die peacefully instead of battling with the illness by artificial extension of life, which threatens their dignity. Although no major human rights document has specifically recognized the right to die with dignity, it could be derived from certain rights acknowledged in those, i.e. the right to a dignified life. Every human is entitled to live a dignified life, as we are born free and equal. Preventing a person from deciding to die when that person’s dignified life is at threat is an infringement of human rights and of the freedom from inhuman and degrading treatment. Physican Assisted Suicide (PAS) could be either active or passive. “Euthanasia” is the act of taking life to relieve suffering. Lethal substances are used in active euthanasia. Passive euthanasia is deliberately withholding treatment (WLT) when it is clear that the patient’s life cannot be recovered. The demand for death with dignity gives rise to a dilemma between rights of human beings and morality. PAS is legal in countries such as Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, India and some States of USA, but the form of recognition may differ. As per the section 299 of the Penal Code of Sri Lanka, abetment to commit suicide is a crime. Accordingly, PAS is prohibited in Sri Lanka regardless of the circumstances. This study focuses on passive PAS with the main objective of exploring the need for legal reform by recognizing the right to die with dignity; the basic argument being the extension provided by life support systems or other machinery is a mere artificial extension of life. It was explored if PAS should be legalized in Sri Lanka to give effect to the right to die with dignity. The hypothesis that “the passive form of PAS under special circumstances should be legalized in Sri Lanka in order to preserve the dignity of persons when they are terminally ill and their life involves severe suffering” was adopted. Methodology Philosophical approaches were studied and a comparative analysis of the laws in other countries was conducted under library research. Spiritual texts of each religion were used in viewing religious perspectives. The Penal Code of Sri Lanka and the Death with Dignity Acts and the case law of other countries such as the Netherlands, the States of Oregon and Washington in the USA were used in the comparative analysis. Under field research, primary data was gathered under the qualitative method via personal interviews with health care professionals and religious leaders. A case study was also conducted to understand the attitude and experience of the patients and their families. Under the quantitative method, a quota-sample that comprises of 43 cases that represented each Province of Sri Lanka, was used to gather primary data through internet based questionnaires. Secondary data from previous researches were used as well. Results & Discussion According to most healthcare professionals, people may have the right to die with dignity even as a majority of the sample believed; but a policy should be implemented, providing patients the liberty to choose to die or not, but leaving the liberty of performing it with the physician. Their view is compatible with the notion of death with dignity because the right to die with dignity does not suggest all patients suffering from chronic illnesses wish to die, but if prefer to terminate their lives, the opportunity to do so should be given. Suicide or active PAS were noted to be rejected by all religions. However, Buddhism and Hinduism do not have a rigid position towards PAS by WLT, while Christianity and Islam reject all forms of PAS. The majority of participants believe that their religious beliefs are strong. 85.7% of Islam followers strongly agreed with the statement that their religious beliefs strongly affect their decisions, although followers of other religions were mostly in a neutral position. Therefore, a strong religious opposition should be expected if the right is to be recognized in Sri Lanka depending on the form of PAS. Although participants did not have a strong opinion regarding the situations PAS should be recognized, 55.8% agreed upon termination of life support in a situation of permanent vegetative state. It was apparent that there was a slight reluctance in deciding the method of PAS in the previous instances. It was assumed through these responses that the Sri Lankan public might prefer passive PAS over active PAS. 58.1% of participants believed that doctors should respect the will of a terminally ill patient's loved ones when such persons are unable to communicate their will on whether to end the life or not, while only 18.7% disagreed to it. Perhaps this is due to the close connection that individuals in Sri Lanka share with their families. However, even if such authority was given to the loved ones, there is the threat of misuse. Conclusion It was discovered that the Sri Lankan public is reluctant to openly discuss such controversial matters, probably because of culture; shaped by religious beliefs. It seems that the public is inadequately aware of the difference between the two forms of PAS, because they did not seem to have a clear understanding regarding the form of PAS that suits Sri Lanka. However, both public and health-care professionals agreed upon legal recognition of passive PAS as hypothesized; possibly also influenced by religious beliefs. It was interesting to note the conflict of opinion between the public and healthcare professionals regarding the authority to determine end-of-life decisions when patients are unable to convey their will. Although physicians were reluctant to grant the right to act as the health-care surrogate when patients are not in a situation to communicate their will, the public decided otherwise. Due to ambiguity regarding the authority on who should decide on the WLT, families also experience immense pain by seeing patients suffer. Although there is a threat of abuse if families were given the opportunity to decide, the danger still remains even if the authority vests in physicians because they could abuse it too for monetary purposes.
Cultural dilemmas of Indian business communities : Sri Lankan experiences in the colonial era
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Gunarathne , M.S.
Introduction Colonialism fundamentally changed the traditional pattern of Asian migration and opened new avenues for trade and investment for migrant merchant communities and occupational opportunities as indentured labour for agrarian classes. Various Indian business communities were attracted in large numbers by the favourable environment created by the plantation economy under British rule and diversified their economic operations and their trading networks in Sri Lanka. These Indian communities played vital and diverse roles in the colony’s economic transformation during the British era. Ethnic migrations and diaspora studies have become popular in the disciplines of humanities and social sciences. But very little research has focused on contingent factors that produced diasporic communities in the Asian region. Sri Lanka is a pluralistic society and apart from the major ethnic groups like the Sinhalese and Tamils there were more than twenty five small ethnic groups composing its population. Most of them migrated to the island during the colonial period. The principal problem addressed in this research is the cultural dilemmas of Indian Business communities in Sri Lanka in their endeavour to locate themselves in a new colonial and socio-cultural context. This study investigates the complex dynamism with which these communities deployed different strategies – both to adjust and preserve their ethnic and cultural identity. The special focus of this study will be on the first half of the 20th century when the nationalist agendas of the Sri Lankan elite presented the Indian communities with the formidable problem of complying with the citizenship requirements of the new independent state in order to safeguard their economic interests as well as their cultural identity. Methodology Both qualitative and quantitative approaches of data collection and analysis were used in this research. In regard to the qualitative approach, interviews were conducted with the descendants of each community still living in Colombo or suburbs to gather information of their family histories. The research also involved the search for private collections of documents of their families. This research was based on information and data obtained from primary archival materials in Sri Lanka and statistical records of colonial governments. Analysis of the information collected has been used to support the arguments relating to the transformation of this community. Results and Discussion These Indian communities such as Chetties, Bharathas, Borahs, etc., underwent socio-economic and later political transformation in the Sri Lankan colonial society. Political as well as socio-economic policies practiced under British colonial hegemony impacted on their complex transformation in this period. Under the changing socio-economic and political conditions they were able to achieve an upward mobility in the social ladder. At the same time the favourable socio-economic environment as well as the administrative structures created under colonialism were utilized to change their economic role beneficially, collaborating with colonialism. Thereby, they were able to transform their traditional identity both qualitatively as well as quantitatively in Sri Lanka. But at the same time they were bent on maintaining an identity as a separate Indian diasporic community. Conclusion During the British period this community adjusted itself to the new religious and socio-economic environment of colonialism using colonial institutional and socio-economic avenues to create a new identity and achieve a higher social status in Sri Lankan colonial society. When Sri Lanka transformed from a colony to an independent nation in 1948 the citizenship issue emerged as a controversial and crucial problem. With the transfer of power to Sri Lankan leaders their economic agendas and the requirements of citizenship of the new nation these migrant communities were confronted with the critical problem of accepting either expulsion or integration. While most migrant Indians departed at this juncture some of them managed to successfully integrate themselves into the new nation, safeguarding their economic and occupational interests.
Social determinants of development democracy: a sociological study of the Uma oya multi-purpose development project (UMDP)
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Udayanga, K.A.S.
Introduction Neo-colonial liberalization with rigorous economic conditions was introduced to Third World countries post decolonization, as an appropriate approach to achieve high social development. However, reflexive behavior of rural communities is a major constituent of modern development and sustainability policies in contrast to earlier neo colonial policy discourses. People’s reflexive behavior indicates the acceptance or rejection of large development projects within communities. Sustainable development is not only a social challenge, but also a policy matter in developing countries. This study mainly focuses on the inconsistent relationship between the reflexive comportment of communities and administrative systems with special reference to Uma Oya Multi Purpose Development Project (UMDP). The objective of the study is to identify the ways in which societal reflexive behavior is inspired and influenced by the implementation of state administered multipurpose development projects in Sri Lanka. Development democracy specifies maintaining the equilibrium between acquired results (ends) and communities’ real expectations (means). Resistance against development projects is often considered to be a consequence of the empowerment of civil society, and the growing awareness of development agendas by local communities. While, generally, ‘beneficiaries’ and ‘victims’ of development projects are considered by policy endeavors, there are some communities who get left out. As a result, administrative authorities may not contemplate societal responses of these non-specified communities when compiling policy agendas and therefore may not be able to resolve problems related to development projects. Since resistance could be the cause of social instability, it is crucial that incongruities between communities and administrative authorities are resolved, in order to reinforce social development in Sri Lanka. Therefore, the study attempts to examine reasons for disputes between communities and administrative authorities within rural societies affected by multi-purpose development projects. Many resistance movements related to sensitive phenomena such as the environment and culture illustrate the matured consciousness of communities when dealing with complications that arise due to development projects, particularly when they are perceived as threatening to their existence (Shiva, 1991). However, modern development policy approaches do not always encourage administrators and engineers to be sensitive to non-economic aspects, which can generate an imbalance between community tolerance and administrative processes. Therefore, in a situation where a particular community does not acquire any development – justice or benefit, the community should have an opportunity to challenge the policy process and create a public discourse on how a balance could be struck between development and community expectations (Habermas, 1975). However, due to complex socio economic factors, equal opportunity for discussion is rarely afforded to communities. As a result of extremely strong hegemonic intervention and power - knowledge continuums, many communities are not able to reap full benefits of these developmental projects. Strengthening development democracy can positively impact civil resistance, and community empowerment. As Scudder (1993) asserted, in India, resistance movements by local communities against the Narmada River Basin Development Project illustrates the critical imbalance among cultural values, societal integration and administrative policies. However, little is known about the relationship between administrative interventions and resistance behavior in the case of development projects in Sri Lanka. Therefore, this study examines sociological determinants affecting development democracy with special focus on the UMDP. Methodology The study is conducted using the grounded theory approach due to its compatibility with the theoretical issues being addressed. Accordingly using unstructured interviews, 41 respondents were interviewed and 4 case studies were conducted. Apart from the interviews, 6 direct observations were also employed to gather data. Data thus collected were analyzed using the case grounding approach and thematic system analysis. Results and Discussion A highly stigmatized and inefficient bureaucratic system is a critical cause of civil resistance against development projects administered by the state. There is a clear detachment between the state administrative system and the project’s management system; hence locals are confused as to where failures of the project should be reported. This is reflected in the resistance to the UMDP. Grassroots level entities are therefore unable to approach a relevant authority to submit their queries. This automatically generates a situation that leads to resistance. Civil resistance also results from unacceptable decisions implemented by administrative authorities. For example, administrator roles were modified after the disaster caused by UMDP. However, local level bureaucrats were reluctant to accede to these modified roles. This confusion also influenced resistance movements. Civil society is empowered as a direct consequence of the imbalance between expectations of people and administrators. Therefore, people strive to resolve issues that arise from a project using nonviolent resistance movements against administrative authorities. Once a catastrophe has taken place as a result of a development project, social systems become unstable. Additionally, it is also unrealistic to expect an instant transformation of administrative systems to deal with the ensuing chaos. However, this delay can create resistance behavior in communities. There may also be ulterior motives during negotiations among stakeholders that may further precipitate the negative impact of such a situation. Further it may also not lead negotiations to reasonable and agreeable solutions. On the other hand, avoiding responsibility can also be considered a major hidden social factor in this process. Conclusion The objective of the resistance or reflexivity is not just to resolve issues, but also to redirect attention of the administrative systems to local communities. It is inappropriate to see civil resistance or reflexive behavior of rural communities as something to be suppressed by administrative authorities, or to be neglected, since it helps the administrators redefine and correct the development paradigm.
Citizens’ trust in public institutions: the case of Sri Lanka
(2016-07-28) Ramesh, R.; Umadev , D.
Introduction Citizens’ trust in public institutions has often been viewed as an important element of successful governance. Citizens’ distrust in government institutions considerably affects the effectiveness and efficiency of public policies and implementation. The Human Development Report (UNDP, 2014) revealed that trust in most public institutions is alarmingly decreasing in Sri Lanka owing to inefficiency, ineffectiveness, institutional discrimination, endemic corruption and politicization of the public sector. This low level of trust in public institutions impacts the quality of democracy and government in Sri Lanka. The present government has been concerned about establishing good governance and an uncorrupt and independent public sector, which fundamentally requires citizens’ trust. Thus, this paper sheds light on citizens’ perception of public institutions and the level of trust that they have in them. It seeks to explain the decreasing amount of trust of public institutions through theoretical and empirical evidence. Methodology In the case of Sri Lanka, very few studies have taken place in the past on citizens’ trust in government institutions. The paper focuses on the following institutions: District and Divisional Secretariat Divisions, Grama Nailadari, Police, Agriculture, Hospitals, Education, Samurthi Office/Bank and Electricity. The study employs a mixed method research approach: quantitative data were collected in Kandy and Nuwara-Eliya in 2015 through a semi-structured questionnaire survey with simple random sampling of a sample of Sinhalese, Tamils and Muslims. There was a total of 100 respondents: 59 female and 41 male. Qualitative data were collected through focus group discussions (FGDs). The locations had a multi-ethnic character, which enabled us to effectively gather data from the three ethnic groups. Secondary data were collected by reviewing much published and unpublished work on the topic. Both qualitative and quantitative data analysis methods were employed in the study to interpret results, particularly, simple descriptive statistics are used to describe the patterns of trust citizens have in various public institutions. Table 1: Sample Frame for Questionnaire Survey < table > Results and Discussion The study found that the overall trust in public institutions was 66.6%. The ethnic categorization was significant: 39.9% of Sinhalese indicated trust compared to only 29.9% of Tamils and 30.2% of Muslims. This could perhaps be attributed to the effective functioning of government institutions in Sinhalese concentrated areas and better access to public services. This study also reveals that the language of administration (Sinhala) has also enabled the ethnic majority to more easily access public institutions. It is important to note that the study found different levels of trust in relation to respondent’s socio-economic profile and age. Middle-aged people were fairly satisfied with public institutions compared to senior citizens. In relation to education, 58% of respondents with only primary education have high trust compared to 42% of educated people. Table 2: Level of Trust by Citizen < table > Identity and Trust Identity influences a citizen’s trust in governance. State funding, resource allocation and other necessary amenities were made available to the Sinhalese areas whereas public institutions in Tamil regions were under- funded and under-resourced. Political Patronage and Trust In the case of Sri Lanka, service delivery has often been linked to a system characterized by political patronage, partisan politics and political manipulation. When these practices prevail in government institutions, citizens in turn also have a limited degree of trust in those institutions. The majority of respondents (67%) revealed that the patronage system has had a powerful influence on citizen trust in government institutions. Because political parties have established patronage as a key medium in service delivery at the local level, citizens’ trust and the equality of service delivery is undermined. Trust in Selected Public Institutions and Corruption Corruption was a major grievance throughout the study, agreed upon by respondents belonging to all ethnic groups. They identified the Police and the Grama Niladari Office6 as the most corrupted institutions in their areas. On the other hand, the study found that Hospitals, Kachcheriya (District Secretariat) and Divisional Secretariat Offices are the most trusted institutions. A significant number of respondents expressed their grievances on experiences of discrimination and ill treatment in public institutions. The study found that experiences of family members, neighbours, colleagues and fellow citizens influence trust in public institutions. Although the government gives high priority to service delivery, it is also evident that the quality of goods and services in terms of access, equity, efficiency and sustainability has progressively deteriorated. Conclusion This study attempts to capture the level of citizens’ trust in government institutions. The study reveals various factors (political, social, ethnic and institutional) that negatively influence trust. This indicates the importance of improving service quality, impartiality, and equality in service delivery in order to increase trust among all sections. Low trust in public institutions considerably impairs the potential quality of public institutions and the notion of good governance that the present government keeps promoting. The Sri Lankan case shows that in ethnically diverse societies, building citizens trust in public institutions (institutional trust) continues to be a challenge due to ethnic, religious, linguistic and political divisions. Table 3: The level of trust in the government institutions < table >
A comparative study on the moral perspective of the education system prescribed by Plato and the Pirivena system of education in Sri Lanka
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Pushpakumara , S.K.N.
Introduction One of the significant features of the “new” education was the development of educational theories. Plato was the earliest important Greek philosopher and educationist in the history of western education. Several research topics have discussed the Platonic system and its influence on the modern theories of education in the western world. The best -known aspect of Plato’s educational thought is his portrayal of the ideal society in the Republic in which the goal is to produce citizens who are capable of playing their part in the civic community. Plato sets out the outline and the curriculum of an educational system in the Republic and believed that education is not simply a narrow vocational training but a moral formation of the man. The system of education in Sri Lanka has its own historical development. The concept of education was first found in the education of the monks in monasteries with the introduction of Buddhism to the country after the arrival of Ven. Mahinha Thero. Education was imparted solely by monasteries. With the establishment of the Pirivena, the foundation was laid for the development of a Sri Lankan education system. This study discusses two education systems developed in ancient Greece and in Sri Lanka. This paper undertakes a comparative study on moral perspective of the system of education prescribed by Plato in his dialogues and the Pirivena system of education in Sri Lanka before the colonial period. The object of this study is to examine the resemblances through the moral perspectives of the respective education systems. Methodology This investigation is mainly based on library research. Plato’s Republic is the primary source used in this study. The Pirivena Education Act of 1979, inscriptions, interviews and field visits to selected Privena institutions helped to obtain information regarding the Pirivena system of education in Sri Lanka. Both Plato’s education system and the Pirivena system of education were studied separately to analyze the information gathered from the research. Results and Discussion The findings of the study indicated that both systems of education are based on an ethical foundation where ethics and virtues are not only significant for the mental, social, economic development and moral leadership of individuals but also in forming a virtuous society. Plato’s education system developed in ancient Greece and the Pirivena system of education in ancient Sri Lanka emphasize on the importance of moral education of pupils. In both education systems young children were given an ethical education to create a morally empowered nation. In the Platonic education system all three classes of people were given a moral education through the curriculum in order to create good citizens in the future. Moral education aimed at producing a virtuous society. Bravery, moderation, justice and temperance are among the virtues that Plato wished to inculcate into his students through his system of education. Plato gives special attention to the moral and ethical education of the citizens in his ideal state and his education system includes the study of social and political conditions of morality. In Pirivena education, both lay pupils and the bhikkhus received moral education through the Buddhist ethics. The objectives of moral education in Pirivena education included the mental, social, economic and character, development of the lay people which is promoted through Buddhism. The building of a virtuous society depended on the moral goodness of the people. Therefore, moral education is necessary to inculcate harmony in the society by preserving the traditional values. Both the Platonic education system and Pirivena education aim to and depend on discipline. Plato intends to produce a nation of disciplined citizen. Therefore, discipline is a required quality not only for the individualistic development but also for social and economic development of the state. Self-discipline is necessary for each individual engaged in fulfilling different tasks or services in accordance with the social structure of the ideal state. In the Pirivena education system, discipline is important for the bhikkhus and for lay pupils. Discipline is more important for meditation as it involves the body and mind and it is a method of taking control of the mind. Hence, discipline is necessary for the bhikkhus to study the profound teaching of Buddhism. The discipline of all citizens lso important to maintain peace and harmony of the state. Therefore, in both education systems discipline plays a specific role in moral education. Another significant objective of both education systems is the moral leadership. In the Platonic education system, the production of an intelligent, philosophical, governing class becomes the ultimate aim. However, in Pirivena education the development of moral leadership was considered more important. The prevalence and prosperity of any state depends on the conduct and administration of a good leader. Furthermore, the educated monks became the educators of the society and their main function was to guide the citizens to lead a better and virtuous life. Therefore, in both education systems the development of moral leadership is important. Conclusion The systems of education proposed by Plato and that practiced in Sri Lankan Pirivenas embrace many ideas and principles that are no less valuable because they are old. Despite the different socio-cultural and socio-political scenarios and the time frame within which these education systems operated and developed, both systems noted the importance of giving moral education and good ethical training to their pupils.
Do romantic relationship breakups provide opportunities for personal growth?
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Dharmarathna, M. N. G. S. R.; Karunanayake, D. D. K. S.
Introduction Relationships are central to human existence. It provides camaraderie, courtship and love. Although the romantic relationships are primary source of happiness and satisfaction the loss or breakup of a romantic relationship can be a significantly distressing event. The pain of lost love is so intense and it can shake a person’s beliefs about human interaction and relationships. The idea that significant positive changes can occur in persons who are confronted with challenges, suffering and loss was suggested by Calhoun, Tedeschi, Cann & Hanks (2010). For example, negative outcomes of a romantic relationship break up represent only half of the picture and it leaves the positive outcomes under explored. Although the loss can produce a negative impact on a person, a person also has the capability of confronting the loss and surviving it. It may also result in positive changes in a person’s life. The theoretical framework of the personal growth following romantic relationship breakup was discussed by Schaefer and Moo’s model of crisis and personal growth (Park, Cohen, & Murch, 1996), Janoff – Bulman’s model and Horowitz’s model (Herbert, 2006) . Most research in this area studies distress following a breakup. This study formulates a new approach to understanding relationship breakups, by focusing on possible positive changes, which reveal personal growth. The research findings can be used to help people rethink their reactions to breakups by identifying the personal strength within them. The research will also inform interventions in such cases. The primary objective of this study was to find whether romantic relationship breakups provide opportunities for personal growth. * In line with this main objective, following questions were developed. * What are factors that contribute to personal growth after a relationship break up? * How does gender interact with post break up growth? * What factors result in romantic relationship breakups? Methodology The study employed a qualitative research design utilizing semi- structured interviews including a list of open-ended questions based on the research topic. Using the purposive sampling technique a sample of 6 participants including 3 males and 3 females were drawn from the Faculty of Art, University of Peradeniya. The sample was selected from participants who had breakup of romantic relationship within last 18 months. Thematic analysis was used to examine data gathered from interviews. Results and Discussion The analysis extricated five themes, which were characteristics of the break up, personal strength, improved relationship with others, characteristics of the person’s environment and factors affecting the break up. The study revealed that romantic relationship break ups provide opportunities for personal growth. Findings showed that although persons experienced negative changes as a result of relationship breakups, as time passed it provided an opportunity to view life more, positively. According to the findings, factors that affected the process of breakup and the reaction to the breakup were personal distress, duration of the relationship and the initiator status. The distress following a breakup can vary from person to person and gender played a significant role. The causes affecting romantic relationship breakups were betrayal, family disapproval and mismatching ideas and desires of the two individuals. Findings indicated personal strength as a major component of personal growth following a romantic relationship breakup and it includes self-perception and coping strategies. Finally it was revealed that person’s environment had an strong impact on a person’s growth following a breakup and that a breakup allowed individuals to build better relationships with others. Conclusion The study suggests that romantic relationship breakups do provide opportunities for personal growth. It is important to identify the characteristics of the breakup in order to develop an insight about romantic relationship. Personal distress, duration of the relationship and the initiator status were found as the major characteristics that are significant to understand the breakup process and the reactions to breakup. Factors impacting breakups are betrayal, family disapproval and mismatching of desires and wishes. As per this study, the way people experience romantic relationship breakup differs from one another and gender difference is identified as prominent. Females tended to express more sadness and feeling of being betrayed by the partner and males developed anger rather than sadness. The growth following romantic relationship breakup is attainable with the acquisition of personal strength, social support and the possibility of forming a new relationship. While a number of research related to this area were conducted in other countries this study was an attempt to explore personal growth following romantic relationship breakup in Sri Lankan society.
The scientometrics of research output in environmental management
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Pratheepan, T.; Amsaveni , N.; Balasubramani, R.
Introduction This study measures the research output in Environmental Management (EM) research through scientometric techniques. This study deals with the analytical part of the thesis for framed hypotheses with source databases of Web of Knowledge which includes Science Citation Index (SCI), Social Science Citation Index (SSCI) and Arts and Humanities Citation Index (AHCI). With the advent of Information Technology the emergence of viewer tools such as impact factor, h-index, priority index, activity index emphasize the relevance of scientometric studies. In this context, scientometrics and bibliometrics research and hence assessment studies always play a significant role in Library and Information Science Research. Also this study attempts to explain the theoretical and empirical discussions relating to research publications in EM from published reports. The objectives of the study are: (1) to identify the different sources, continent and country-wise distribution of EM research output, (2) to identify the proportion of authorship pattern and degree of collaboration in EM research and (3) to test the applicability of Lotka’s Law, Price’s Square Root Law and Pareto Principle (80/20 rule) to measure author productivity in the field of EM research. Methodology The present study examines the continent and country wide distribution of research output of global scientists in the EM field. The study examines the relative growth rate, absolute growth level, exponential growth and doubling time of publication during the study period. The authors’ productivity and degree of collaboration in EM research output are also examined. There are various sources contributing to the research output in the EM field. For this study the researcher has taken the secondary sources from Science Citation Index (SCI), Social Science Citation Index (SSCI) and Arts & Humanities Citation Index (ACHI) which is available via the Web of Science (WoS). The WoS is the search platform provided by Thomson Reuters (the former Thomson Scientific emerged from the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) in Philadelphia). The study period is 1989 to 2014 (26 years) and the search string is “Environmental Management” only. A total of 62059 records were downloaded, after eliminate duplicate records, 61877 records were found and analyzed using Histcite, VOSViewer and MS-Excel software. The tools and techniques used were Relative Growth Rate (RGR) and Doubling Time, Degree of Collaboration and Collaborative Index, Historiographic Map, Bradford’s Law of Scattering Journals, Lotka’s Law of Author Productivity. Results and discussion The leading source of articles is in the form of journal articles compared to other sources. The collection was exported to HistCite to obtain a list of 61877 articles produced by 6191 journals and 3,072,359 times cited references along with their local and global citation scores (69,332 LCS and 940,030 GCS). The European continent stood first and second rank. It was also found that USA in North America, UK in Europe and China in Asia dominate their respective geographical areas. Among the seven continents, the European Continent has a specialized relation with world output. “Environmental Sciences” has the highest contribution within the subject category. The “Environmental Management” journal has produced more number of articles and “Ecological Applications” is the most cited journal in the field. From historiographic analysis the “Journal of Cleaner Production” has the highest citation scores and links. Among the 214,351 authors, the authors of “Huang GH, Chang NB, Li YP and Zhang FS” were the contributors of highest number of articles and identified as the most productive authors in EM field. Through VOSViewer analysis the authors “Huang GH, Liu Y, Zhang FS and Zhang Y” have the highest productivity and highest bibliographic coupling values. Single author productivity is 5.22 percent while multi- authors’ productivity is 94.78 percent. The three-authored productivity has been highest and the three-authored team has contributed the highest number of authors. The authors of “Burger J and Huang GH” were identified as the active authors of different level of authorship pattern in EM research. The author “Chang NB” was identified as the active first author of different level of authorship pattern. From the historiographic mapping analysis, “Alavi M” has earned the highest citation scores. The collaborative index for universal level is 3.46 and degree of collaboration, C, is equal to 0.82; i.e. 82 percent of collaborative authors’ articles were published during the study period. Out of 28,127 institutions, the “Chinese Academy of Sciences” produced the most number of articles. The authors of “Porter ME” and “Hollings CS” were identified as the highly cited authors. The journals of “Strategic Management”; “Academic Management Review”, “Nature”, “Academic Management”, “Science” and “Ecological Model” show different colours for identifying the repeated cited journals. Conclusion India is far behind USA in North America, UK in Europe and China in terms of publication output, citation quality and share of international papers in the EM field. There is an urgent need for substantial increase in research and development investments, both at the institutional level as well as in terms of external funding from different scientific agencies. Academic institutes should take steps to create interest in research in EM among graduate and postgraduate students and also among young environmental scientists. There should be a substantial increase in international collaboration to increase the output and also to improve the quality of research. In addition there should be more collaboration among the Indian institutions.

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