(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2018-11) Ven. Pahiyangala Sumangala; Ven. Kelagama Jinarathana; Ven. Minuwangoda Gnanawasa; Ven. Bodagama Sumana; Ven. Handagiriye Siri Sumana
The oldest settlement evidence of Anuradhapura goes back to the early Iron Age and dates back to 900-600 BC based on radio carbon analysis (Daraniyagala S.U: 1992, page 709) The irrigation was the key factor for the evolution of the ancient village system which can be considered as a significant development in the Iron Age. There is archaeological evidence to prove that there were human settlements in Anuradhapura even before the arrival of king “Vijaya”. The excavations done in inner city (Athulunuwara) had found some pottery which proves that there were human settlements prior to ‘Vijayas’ arrival. Since they had a technology and civilization in clay pottery it might be assumed that they might have had the technology in irrigation and the concept of tanks too. The ideas on irrigation tanks had been spread later as large tanks and thousands of small tanks in each and every village in the later period of the Anuradhapura era. These tanks greatly influenced on the development of agriculture of the country. Canals and tanks were constructed by successive kings too.
Many scholars have done research on the tanks in Anuradhapura. Among them there are archaeologists, historians, sociologists, irrigation engineers, and anthropologists. R.L Brohier (1930) has studied the ancient irrigation system in Sri Lanka and revealed his findings in a book called “Ancient Irrigation Works of Ceylon”. H.W Coodrington through his books, “Ceylon Coins and Currency” and “Short History of Ceylon” has mentioned about a tax system related to the tanks. C.W. Nicholas also has done research on Sri Lankan Irrigation System. Since the Rajarata kingdom has been transferred to the South as a result of the foreign invasions and several other factors many tanks have been ruined due to none maintenance. Under British rule, many of them have been renovated.
In the resent past local researchers have done research on irrigation on the basis of new scientific research methods. Specially, An Excavations have been conducted by Dr. Siran Daraniyagala and Robin Cunningham, in the inner city (Athulunuwara) of ancient Anuradhapura city and they found evidence of ancient water management system in the beginning of the first millennium B.C.
Objectives
To investigate the cascade system of irrigation in ancient Anuradhapura.
To investigate the water supply systems of the citadel and monasteries, of ancient Anuradhapura.
To investigate the irrigation system of agriculture of ancient Anuradhapura.
This study was done mainly based on the archaeological and literary sources. The historical resources, excavation reports, and interviews were the primary sources that have been used for the study. The prior research reports also have been used as secondary sources. It is noticeable that some basic elements like, Biso Kotuwa, Sorowwa, cannels and other elements related to the tanks have some timely changes even though the giant tanks are still remaining as originals. Yet, some small types of tanks are not visible as tanks, and need an exploration in recognizing. To observe such tanks, the literature and previous archeological research were used. The irrigation system and the cannels in and around the sacred city of Anuradhapura also were not visible and need a considerable effort in mapping. Hence, the study focused on much literature in searching the irrigation system in the particular area. Apart from that, the previous archaeological research was studied to assure the findings as well. Specially, the guidance and the knowledge of the adults around the area about these canals and irrigations were a great support to identify the particular places.
Ancient Scared City of Anuradhapura can be recognized as one of the most significant archeological sites in Sri Lanka as well as in South Asia. Dr. Siran Deraniyagala has done a research in the inner city (Athulunuwara) area of ancient Anuradhapura city which is about 250 acres of land in size in 1960(Daraniyagala S.U: 1992, page 709) based on the number of research had been done by local and international research on the same matter. He has done an archaeological excavation and as a result more than 14 excavations have been done in the area since 1984 in a large scale using modern scientific research methods covering the 250 acres of land area. The findings of the researches that have been done reveal adequate evidence to explore the fact that there had been Human settlements and well developed irrigation system in the area.
King Vijaya who arrived in 06th centuary B.C ruled in Thambapanni, and his follower The King Panduwasadewa established his kindom in Upathissa Gramaya, which was situated in the middle of the country giving up the Kingdom of Thammannawa. Next, King Pandukabaya after his summit made ‘Anuradha Grama’ which was situated around “Malwathu Oya” as his kingdom. The reason King Pandukabhaya moved his kingdom to the area could be the possibility of getting the needy water for agriculture. King Pandukabaya has made the ‘Anuradha Grama’ as a well-developed and well-guarded city. According to the Mahawansa the king also made three tanks named “Jaya Vapi”, “Abhaya Vapie” ‘Gamini Vapi’ in order to supply the water to the inner city. ‘Abaya Tank’ is known as ‘Basawakkulama tank’ today. During the period of King Dewanamiyathissa, the necessity for the water of the city had been increased and ‘Thissa Wewa’ has been built accordingly. At the beginning the tank was small in size, and it has been enlarged in the period of King Dhathusena, bringing water from Kala Wewa through ‘Jayaganga’ (Yoda Ela). Through ‘Halpanu Oya’ canal from ‘Malwathu Oya’ water has been sent to the middle of the Anuradhapura ancient city and the need for the water of both ‘Maha Sangha’ and citizens were fulfilled with that water. Adequate archaeological evidences have been revealed by the excavations done in the area and there can be seen some ruins of the parts of irrigation system such as ‘Biso Kotuwa’ and ‘Sorowwa’. Apart from that, there are some ruins of a brick made system which was used in purification of water. There is a special creation in the middle of the city which was used to get water to the Alms Hall. It was kind of a well and there is a stair case from top to bottom of the well, that anybody can step down and get the water even though the level of the water goes down.
The archeological excavations further reveal that there was an underground drainage system, for getting water from Malwathu Oya, ‘Thissa Wewa’, ‘Abaya Wewa’ and ‘Bulankulama Wewa’. It is considered that the Elephant Fountain (Eth Pokuna) in Abhayagiriya was watered by the ‘Bulankulama Wewa’. There is a notice in one of the inscription of ‘Ruwanweli Seya’ of King ‘Kanitta Thiisa’ about some tanks named ‘Mathaka Wewa’, ‘Asanaka Wewa’, ‘Gothika Wewa’ and an Amuna. These tanks also might be filled by Malwathu Oya. According to the Dakkhina Thupa Puwaru Lipiya there were several tanks including an Amuna called “Rathakamawa”. There is a notice in a Giri Lipiya in ‘Purawasankulama’ about a few tanks named ‘Nakara Wewa’, ‘Bandakara Wewa’, ‘Watanakaraka Wewa’, ‘Salagala Wewa’, ‘Kada Wewa’, ‘Patagamaka Wewa’, ‘Nakara Wewa’, ‘Balaka Wewa’, and ‘Malaka Wewa’ including an Amuna in the name of Barajaka Too (Brohier, R.L 1934). King “Mahasen” also continued the constructions of the Tanks and Gaminiwapi or Gaminithissa is one of them. Today the tank has been recognized as Perimiyankulama in the North direction to the Anuradhapura city.
The tanks in small sizes might be enlarged later as the timely need. At first these tanks were created in natural places where the water gets collected which were created as a result of natural phenomena. The ‘Nuwara Wewa’ is one such tank which was a small tank at the beginning in the name of ‘Nakara Wewa’. King II Moggallana also has built a tank across the “Malwathu Oya” in the same way. In this way in 5th and 6th century B.C. the ancient Anuradhapura city was facilitated with water by a well-developed irrigation system. In this system of irrigation, many tanks including Abhaya Wewa and many other canals, drains, amunu and creations were made to full fill the need of the citizens. In spite of that, the tanks were created in order to facilitate the agriculture outside of the city. As a whole, the water management system of ancient Anuradhapura city was well planned considering the factors like increasing population, the environment, the landscape, and the need.
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2018-11) Tharangani, K.W.C.
Punch-marked Coins are the earliest coin type found in Sri Lankan coinage. The coins had been circulated from 3rd century B.C. to 4th century A.C. Punch-marked Coins found in Sri Lanka belong to imperial series and have a Northern Indian origin. The coins have been unearthed from many regions of Sri Lanka. Most researches have been conducted on the basis of North Central, North-West and North of the Island as these regions unearthed plenty of artefacts, but less in Wet Zone in early and the historical period in Sri Lanka. Furthermore, any information on Wet Zone has not mentioned in the historical resources such as Mahavanśa, Deepavanśaya. In addition to this, the historical sources mainly were focused on to discuss and explain all aspects of major centers such as Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa in the Dry Zone and have not focused on the other regions. In addition to this, any epigraphic evidence related to trade and coins of the Punch-marked Coins circulated period in the Wet Zone of Sri Lanka cannot be identified. However, plenty of Punch-marked Coins and Roman Coins have been unearthed from the Wet Zone
Henry Parker had been conducted a research on Punch Marked Coins in his book of ‘Ancient Ceylon' in 1909. Under the chapter XII- The Earliest Coins. He has presented the information under the sub-topic of ‘The PurāņaDaranas, Or Sālākas'. Here, he has mentioned that Punch Marked Coins were imported from India. A brief description of the shapes, symbols, weight, and metal of the coins have included.
H.W. Codrignton has conducted a research on numismatics. The work has been published as a book named Ceylon Coins and Currency (1924). It includes coins from the beginning of the coinage system to the British period. He has mentioned that the Punch-marked Coins have arrived from India.
Anuradhapura was active as the political capital of ancient Sri Lanka and it seems that the coins were unearthed from far away from the Anuradhapura and its hinterland. GIS application and numismatics epigraphic evidence are used to understand the economic history of the wet zone of ancient Sri Lanka.
It reveals that not only dry zone but also the wet zone had played a vital role in the economic history of Sri Lanka. The following map shows the occurrence of the PMC and the inscriptions regarding coin system.
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2018-11) Ven. Gampola Vijaya thero
The reviewing of Prehistoric Paintings in Sri Lanka, in the context of distribution was carried out in this study, and the identified paintings can be classified into two types. These are: engravings on a surface of the rock and paintings on a rock surface. The engravings could be identified at Dorawakakanda, Kondagala, Hakbelikanda and Maleeyadikanda. The paintings depicted on rock surfaces have been foud at Adiyagala, Henanigala, Tantirimale, Alugalage, Hulan nuge, Kiripokuna and other places. The Prehistoric paintings have been coloured as Monochrome and Polychrome. Red, gray, yellow, orange, white and black colours are common in paintings.
Depending on the area where the prehistoric paintings are located, the hill country and low land dry zone are more prominent. The low land rainforests zone can be identified as an attractive region of prehistoric maninhabitants. Nevertheless, prehistoric paintings can be identified to a small extent in the vicinity of the Ratnapura District. Concerning a new interpretation to the Sri Lankan prehistoric paintings of it is more important to provide an archaeological interpretation of prehistoric paintings in the Ratnapura district. District zone can be categorized into several stages prehistoric paintings, paintings of the Gampola period and paintings of the Kandy period. The prehistoric paintings of Ratnapura district are under the impression of many researchers. Physically they have received quantitative evidence of the paintings of the Gampola Peried and Kandy Perieod. However, Archaeological data of the prehistoric painting is minority.
The prehistoric paintings that have been found in Ratnapura district have not been properly interpreted. Those at Veherayaya, Budugala, Sankpala and Rassagala are the main prehistoric paintings in Ratnunupura District. Among the prehistoric painting sites, the destruction and vandalization of the Veherayaya paintings were observed.
In the past, several archaeological research teams and the department of archeology have noted that this site had been observed, but there is no initial record of the paintings. At present, only Udeni Arunasiri has carried out archaeological research. According to the contents of the research, it is possible to identify a reference to the art and color of the paintings. Vehereyaya, which has limited and minimal research, is the primary purpose of the study is to do formal reporting and to emphasize the coherent significance of Prehistoric paintings.
The Methodology includedthe sources of literature, field visits, interviews and map studies. The primary source and secondary source were used for the field. Explorations, such as photographs, field notes, geological maps, charts and measurements.
The Veherayaya archaeological site is located Weelioya gramaseva division, Sabarahamuwa province, Rratnapura. It was necessary to trave about 32 km towards Balangoda - Kaltota roadand turn left at the Kaltota junction and went straight Kaltota - Welioya road about 13 km.
The location of the painting is identifiable on the rocky ground of the earths surface' as a rock shelter. The cave is facing the slippery slope. In the upper part of the cave roof, there is a Pre-Brahmi inscription. The distribution of paintingscan be identified on the rock surface connecting to the bedrock. There is a 50 feet × 10 feet spacein front of the rock shelter. Near the paintings, there is an inhabited house with smaller clay walls. The painted wall is about 30 feet × 45 feet in size, but the surface of the rock is slightly damaged by the flowing of water. Several species of lichens leeches have grown on the rock surface due to the high humidity in the region. The paintings, which are completely open to the outside, are somewhat shrouded by caves up to 40 feet high. The rest of the pieces are shown that there were stylish paintings. However, present, clear and identifiable paintings can be seen only in the upper and lower parts of the rock surface. As the painting spreads it was possible to identify the distribution of the central part of the rock surface.
The contextual subject of paintings is possible to identify animal and human figures; and geometric shapes, those are hand-held human figures, elephant and deer figures.Human and elephant figureshave been painted Similarly. Human and elephant figures be observed on the prehistoric paintings of Sri Lanka. It can be used to identify some of the metaphors with a certain size, compared with other images. The elephants figure found is slightly larger compared to other paintings. A range of geometric line-formats can be seen on the surfaceof the paintings and shapes drawn on the rock surface. The lines of geometric have spread over other paintings. The geometric shapes of the drawings include horizontal, vertical dots, and line strips can be seen. Generally, in conjunction with paintings, human figures can be identified largely with long-sleeved body and legs.
With regard to pigments. red and white are commonly used. Colour usage is very low and white and grcy commonly used for human figures and animal figures.
The Vehereyaya where was carried out this research, can be identified as a unique place in the region, depicts prehistoric paintings. The possibility of comparison with the prehistoric paintings are in Sri Lankaand the features and objects that are characteristic of the paintings is implied the prehistoric significance of these paintings.
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2018-11) Jeewan, S.
Cultural Heritage Management (CHM) is one of the most important disciplines in archaeological studies. The ICOMOS charter for the interpretation and the presentation for Cultural Heritage Sites has been referred Cultural Heritage as "a place, locality, natural landscape, settlement area, architectural complex, archaeological site, or standing structure that is recognized and often legally protected as a place of historical and cultural significance" (ICOMOS, 2008). This mainly refers to that the heritage is material based (ICOMOS, 1999). Further, UNESCO-World Heritage Convention has been emphasized the importance of the documentation, managing and the monitoring of world heritage (ICOMOS, 1990; UNESCO, 2013) with several operational guidelines (UNESCO, 2008). When considering the management and the protection of cultural heritage in Sri Lanka, utilization of global situations and the global enforcements of new framework documentation, planning, managing, and monitoring of cultural heritage are very significant. With these perspectives, it is necessary to identify recent global technological adaptations and most effective methodologies, which are using for documentation, managing and monitoring of cultural heritage at present in worldwide.
Most of the countries are monitored their cultural heritage sites and visible monuments, with on-site observations, especially, including data collection, periodic observations of archaeological sites and multi-analysis based investigations. In some cases, on-site observations are time consuming and it may be a not cost-effective method (Hadjimitsis et al., 2013: 64). Within this practice, remote sensing is using along with GIS applications, as technological integrations for heritage management and monitoring process (ibid) in last few decades. Remote sensing is a way of acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making any physical contact with the object (Parcak, 2009). Aerial photographs and satellite imagery technologies, which are involved an electromagnetic radiation in order to identify and detect various objects and phenomena. The Multi Spectral Remote Sensing images are very efficient for obtaining a better understanding of the earth surface (Nusrath, 2012: 58-67). It is a way acquiring information and extracting the features in form of spectral, spatial and temporal about some objects, area or phenomenon, such as vegetation, land cover classification, urban area, agriculture land and water resources. Geographic Information System (GIS) is a kind of computer based framework to gather, manage and analyze the spatial data. This can be use for analyze the spatial location and organize the layers of information into visualizations with different methods (Esri, 2018). Part of remote sensing is integrated within GIS. Hence, along with GIS, remote sensing based studies can be done by successfully.
This study is structured to identify the uses of remote sensing technology in monitoring process in the Cultural Heritage Management in Sri Lanka, with especial reference to selected monuments and areas in the Kandy, the world heritage city. Also, this research will be questioned about the utilization of the remote sensing along with GIS applications. The methodology of this study has based on field exploration, using remote sensing and satellite images, GIS application. Further, the discussion will be carried out basically, with the data gathered from remote sensing applications and their analysis.
Kandy world heritage city has been under taken several documentation procedures from the last century up to date. However, historical recordings can be identified since the very earliest period. Further, some of the remarkable evidences are provided by the Dutch and British records. Recently, government department of archaeology, central cultural fund and some individual researches have been conducted various researches on documentation, managing and monitoring the Kandyan Heritage. Apart from those studies, UNESCO and ICOMOS were also interested in research, managing and monitoring the Kandyan Heritage, based on World Heritage process (ICOMOS - Advisory Body Evaluation, 1988; Report on ICOMOS Monitoring Mission to Dambulla, Kandy and Galle, 1998 and etc.).
However, this study differs from the above process and this will be carried out by remote sensing based applications for monitoring the cultural heritage.
This researcher applied Landsat, Sentinel 2 and Google satellite imageries for analysis purpose from the year 2002 to 2018. GPS locations have been taken from using mobile GPS and the use of CTDroid Sri Lanka application. Further, the some of the data, which has been gathered from field studies, have been analyzed by using Arc. GIS 10.5. The study has been followed by several satellite images to identify the differences and the issues of the Kandy sacred city area in recent years. Further, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and algorithms were applied for the study. NDVI is one of powerful analysis tools in GIS, which is employing the Multi- Spectral Remote Sensing data technique to find vegetation index, land cover classification, vegetation, water bodies, open area, scrub area, hilly areas, agricultural area, thick forest, thin forest with few band combinations of the remote sensed data.
Following maps are representing the land cover classification of Kandy sacred city in last sixteen years.
In order to remote sensing based monitoring assignment of the Kandy sacred city area, several facts can be recognized. Specially, when considering completely the sacred city area, changes of the natural vegetation can be identified. This effect is nearly showing the percentage of 19.5% for last sixteen years and percentage of 1.65% per year. The urban activities are showing more than 18.5% percent of development, and for one year, this can be a percentage of 1.16%. Moreover, along with field investigations, the study is showing renewals and the conservations of the protected monuments are increased in percentage of 1.70% per year. Moreover, traffic based issues can be seen. Air pollution is also increased in last decades. In addition, highly protected monument premises were also effaced by new construction, some are called temporary buildings. However, some monuments and the areas were not affected by illegal constructions or activities, due to ongoing management process.
The study is showing considerable issues in the sacred city of Kandy, which can be affected cultural heritage, as the instant of, changes of the natural vegetation, urban activities, renewals and the conservations, traffic and air pollution, illegal and new construction. As a living heritage, some of the activities can be expected. However, it must be in miner level, but here it is high. According to these results it is necessary to overtake a risk assessment analysis of cultural heritage in Kandy. Further, monitoring of the surroundings areas is also necessary.
The use of remote sensing along with GIS applications in heritage monitoring process is very effective. This is kind of a low and cost-effective method and it does not need much of human resources. Use of on-site observations and data collection can be lead in to multi-analysis based investigations via remote sensing and GIS applications. Further, this can be recommended in heritage management and the monitoring purpose in Sri Lankan context.