ICHSS-2016

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A comparative study of Johann Sebastian Bach’s selected sacred cantata BWV 004 and Premasiri Kemadasa’s musical composition Pirinivanmangallaya
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Senevirathne, Niroshi
Introduction This study will focus on one of the earliest plays of Euripides, Alkestis. Euripides is known to be a revolutionary playwright, who introduced novel characters and themes on to the ancient Greek stage. There are two slaves, one female and one male, playing a significant role in the play Alkestis and contributing to character and plot development. The objective of this study is to examine how Euripides uses the two slave characters effectively in the play to create an overall effect on the drama. Methodology The present study employs a literature survey accompanied by critical studies and analysis on Euripidean techniques on characterization and plot development. The speeches of the slaves and the dialogues in which they form a part will be studied closely. Besides, the other Euripidean plays with slave characters will also be studied closely. Secondary literature on Euripidean plays, Greek society and slavery and Greek drama will also be used as appropriate. Results and Discussion Plays of Euripides and various aspects of Euripidean drama have been studied extensively over the centuries. Though the slave characters as Andromachy and Hecuba have attracted scholarly attention the slave characters in Alkestis have not received sufficient attention. The present study therefore attempts to research this problem. Euripides is known for reforming the traditional configuration of ancient Greek plays by introducing strong female characters and intelligent slaves. As a result, Euripides was considered to be a revolutionist and he was criticized heavily by his society. The play Alkestis presents two slaves, one male and another female, their characteristics indicate that they are typical slaves who are loyal to their master / mistress and are devoid of restrained manners and intelligence. Though these two slaves appear only very briefly on stage, their presence is crucial for the development of the plot and of the characters of Alkestis and Admetos. Euripides was criticized by Aeschylus for incorporating certain characteristics, for example bold speech, as can be seen in the agon of Aristophanes, into his slave characters. However, these characteristics are distinct in the play through the two characters in the same way that Hecuba, Andromachy or Ion are represented in their respective plays. It is through the words of the slaves, especially those of the female slave that Alkestis becomes a dominant figure throughout the play despite her brief appearance.1 Euripides uses the slave characters to attract and to retain constant attention on Alkestis. Euripides has assigned specific roles, at specific instances, to these two slaves in rousing pathos in the play and the master sentimentalist has cleverly woven them into the plot of the play. Sometimes, the words of slaves represent their individual heartfelt declarations (Alkestis, lines 192-196), at other times they are spokes-persons of their slave community (ibid, lines 762-764; 769-771). At times they also disclose the views of the whole Phaerean society (ibid, lines 152-155). It is through the words of the female slave that the contrasting characteristics of Alkestis and Admetus were presented first to the audience. By using the female slave, Euripides, on one hand highlights the noble and virtuous character of Alkestis and, on the other hand the cowardice of Admetus. Furthermore, the unrestrained nature of her servile character stands in contrast to the reserved noble etiquettes of Alkestis. Such was Alkestis' manner at her public appearance (ibid, lines 169-173). Yet, if not for the employment of the slave character, who had access to Alkestis' private sphere of life, Euripides would not be able to draw the contrast between her internal element of morality that is expressed by the conflicts in her mind, and her external element of morality (displayed in her public appearance), which is sure to have multiple regulators. Moreover, the contribution of the female slave, through reporting Alkestis' concern for her children, is vital to accomplish the effective introduction of the child motive. In addition, the remarks of Alkestis gain more weight when they are reported by a loyal slave. In likecircumstances the audience is prepared to meet a mother wailing for her children's safety. This anticipates or forms a prologue to the resolution at which Alkestis' later arrives to safeguard her children (ibid, lines 302- 303). The character of the male slave on the other hand reveals to Heracles that the queen Alkestis is dead, the very thing Admetus wanted to hide from him. Here too through the unrestrained nature and recklessness of the slave, Admetus is reunited with his wife, Alkestis thus turning the play into a tragicomedy. It also helps Admetus to regain his lost kudos as a king whose hospitality is boundless. In addition, it is the betrayal of the male slave that draws Heracles' attention to Admetus' hospitality, thus it is the slave who prompts Heracles into action. Moreover, the male slave's remark, that Alkestis was a mother to him and to the fellow slaves indicates that she was an exceptionally kind mistress who never bullied her slaves psychologically, as any other slave owner of the time did. The comparison of the temperaments of Admetus and Alkestis towards their slaves makes us wonder whether Admetus was not as mild as Alkestis. Conclusion Thus, it is clear that the two slaves are necessary to stir pathos of the play. Their contribution to the development of Alkestis' and Admetus' characters is vital and significant. Euripides has cleverly used these slave characters not only in the development of the plot but also in introducing a change into the play by using Heracles to bring back Alkestis. In addition, the slave characters inform us of the condition of slavery that prevailed in Admetus' house. It can be stated that Euripides would not have appealed as much to audiences if not for the slave characters.
A comparative study of medieval Sinhala 'isa:' and modern Sinhala 'saha'/'ha:'
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Ariyawansa, D.
Introduction 'Saha' and 'ha:' are the particles in modern Sinhala that are used to combine nouns and adjectives. The meaning of 'saha' and 'ha:' is the same and the tradition is employs both to combine more than two words. e.g.: Veḷ enda: saha veḷ endijǝ bat ha: pa:n vikuṇ ǝti. Unlike in modern Sinhala, they have been employed in classical Sinhalese to express the meaning 'with'. They are particles with an Old Indo-Aryan origin (Karunatillake 2012, p. 286, 322). In this research, 'saha' and 'ha:' are considered as particles with the meaning 'and', i.e. as devices of co-ordination. Various graphical representations for 'saha' and 'ha:' can be found in inscriptions of Prakrit Sinhala era and Medieval Sinhala era, namely ca, ce, ica and isa:. Here, attention is paid to 'isa:' in Medieval Sinhala inscriptions. The resear is based on the Anuradhapura slab inscription of King Kassapa V, the Mihintale slab inscriptions and the Badulla pillar inscription. The meaning underlying Mediaeval Sinhala 'isa:' and Modern Sinhala 'saha' is the same. Although both of them can be considered as particles expressing the meaning 'and', one can see that they are employed in a different ways. This study examines how these differences can be identified. A clear understanding about Medieval Sinhala 'isa:' and Modern Sinhala 'saha'/'ha:' is expected through the comparative study. Methodology This is a qualitative research based on the Anuradhapura slab inscription of King Kassapa V, Mihintale slab inscriptions and Badulla pillar inscription. These inscriptions will be examined for their use of 'isa:'. Their contexts and patterns will be recognized. After that, it will be compared with the use of Modern Sinhala 'saha'/'ha:' and important points will be identified. Through these points, the study will conclude whether the meaning and employment of medieval Sinhala 'isa:' and modern Sinhala 'saha'/'ha:' are the same or different. Discussion and Results When examining particular inscriptions, using 'isa:' can be found in several contexts. Sometimes it combines two nouns and these nouns may be in dect case or oblique case. e.g.: seyi giri veherhi isa: abahayi giri veherhi isa:, gekuli: isa: maṇ uvæ:sarǝ isa: (Mihintale slab inscriptions). In complex sentences, the particle 'isa:' can be found without a limitation. It may be used to coordinate many subjects and many objects in the same sentence. e.g.: a:kæmija: isa: veherleja: isa: karanda leja: isa:… eknaṭ pas kiri: bægin isa:…. (Ibid.). Sometimes it is difficult to understand the meaning in these kinds of contexts. 'Isa:' has been always placed at the end of every word that is combined with it. Apart from nouns, 'isa:' has been employed with gerunds. In this case, graphical representations of gerunds may vary though they have combined with 'isa:', gas koḷ nokapǝnu isa: mela:tsi: novadna: isa:, gedaḍ noganna: isa: des nojavanu isa: (Anuradhapura slab inscription). Furthermore, it is noteworthy that 'isa:' has been used to combine two or more clauses in complex sentences. e.g.: daḍǝ ganut misæ anija: nokǝrǝnu isa: … tiræ genæ daḍǝ noilvanu isa… piṭat kotǝ no genæ janu isa….(Badulla pillar inscription). When examining particular inscriptions, it can be seen that one inscription may consist of two or three sentences. Sometimes more than twenty-five lines have been combined with the particle 'isa:'. Moving onto the employment of 'saha'/'ha:' in Modern Sinhala, one can clearly see that it is limited to combine two words in the sense of co- ordination. Unlike 'isa:' saha is never used more than once. In modern Sinhala, the pattern is to combine words with commas and employ 'saha' before the last word. When combining gerunds, they should be kept in the same form. i.e. karǝru saha balanu piṇisa instead of karǝnu saha bæli:mǝ piṇisǝ . When there are more clauses to combine, 'da', 'isa:' and 'ha:' is mixed in modern Sinhalese. e. g.: Amma: da mamǝ da potpat ha: a:ha:rǝ rægenǝ pa:salǝṭǝ saha pantijǝṭǝ gijemu. If 'da', 'ha:' and 'saha' in this sentence are replaced with 'isa:', the result is, *Amma: isa: mamǝ isa: potpat isa: a:ha:rǝ isa: rægenǝ pa:salǝṭǝ isa: pantijǝṭǝ isa: gijemu. It is difficult to get a proper idea from the sentence. When comparing these points, 'isa:' can be identified as a particle with various meanings such as 'and', 'furthermore', and 'not only… but also'. Depending on the contexts, the meaning of the particle varies. Contrastingly, 'saha'/'ha:' in modern Sinhala is employed only with the sense 'and'. When comparing the patterns, it could be seen that 'isa:' has been widely used in several sentence structures more than 'saha'/'ha:'. Conclusion Considering these facts, it can be understood that medieval Sinhala 'isa:' is not identical with modern Sinhala 'saha'/'ha:' in its use. Though it is considered that 'saha'/'ha:' are the results of the development of the particle 'isa:', differences have occurred with that development. Thus, apart from just identifying modern Sinhala 'saha'/'ha:' as the particles developed from Medieval Sinhala 'isa:', it should be recognized that both particles have their own meanings and uses as pointed out above.
A comparative study on the moral perspective of the education system prescribed by Plato and the Pirivena system of education in Sri Lanka
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Pushpakumara , S.K.N.
Introduction One of the significant features of the “new” education was the development of educational theories. Plato was the earliest important Greek philosopher and educationist in the history of western education. Several research topics have discussed the Platonic system and its influence on the modern theories of education in the western world. The best -known aspect of Plato’s educational thought is his portrayal of the ideal society in the Republic in which the goal is to produce citizens who are capable of playing their part in the civic community. Plato sets out the outline and the curriculum of an educational system in the Republic and believed that education is not simply a narrow vocational training but a moral formation of the man. The system of education in Sri Lanka has its own historical development. The concept of education was first found in the education of the monks in monasteries with the introduction of Buddhism to the country after the arrival of Ven. Mahinha Thero. Education was imparted solely by monasteries. With the establishment of the Pirivena, the foundation was laid for the development of a Sri Lankan education system. This study discusses two education systems developed in ancient Greece and in Sri Lanka. This paper undertakes a comparative study on moral perspective of the system of education prescribed by Plato in his dialogues and the Pirivena system of education in Sri Lanka before the colonial period. The object of this study is to examine the resemblances through the moral perspectives of the respective education systems. Methodology This investigation is mainly based on library research. Plato’s Republic is the primary source used in this study. The Pirivena Education Act of 1979, inscriptions, interviews and field visits to selected Privena institutions helped to obtain information regarding the Pirivena system of education in Sri Lanka. Both Plato’s education system and the Pirivena system of education were studied separately to analyze the information gathered from the research. Results and Discussion The findings of the study indicated that both systems of education are based on an ethical foundation where ethics and virtues are not only significant for the mental, social, economic development and moral leadership of individuals but also in forming a virtuous society. Plato’s education system developed in ancient Greece and the Pirivena system of education in ancient Sri Lanka emphasize on the importance of moral education of pupils. In both education systems young children were given an ethical education to create a morally empowered nation. In the Platonic education system all three classes of people were given a moral education through the curriculum in order to create good citizens in the future. Moral education aimed at producing a virtuous society. Bravery, moderation, justice and temperance are among the virtues that Plato wished to inculcate into his students through his system of education. Plato gives special attention to the moral and ethical education of the citizens in his ideal state and his education system includes the study of social and political conditions of morality. In Pirivena education, both lay pupils and the bhikkhus received moral education through the Buddhist ethics. The objectives of moral education in Pirivena education included the mental, social, economic and character, development of the lay people which is promoted through Buddhism. The building of a virtuous society depended on the moral goodness of the people. Therefore, moral education is necessary to inculcate harmony in the society by preserving the traditional values. Both the Platonic education system and Pirivena education aim to and depend on discipline. Plato intends to produce a nation of disciplined citizen. Therefore, discipline is a required quality not only for the individualistic development but also for social and economic development of the state. Self-discipline is necessary for each individual engaged in fulfilling different tasks or services in accordance with the social structure of the ideal state. In the Pirivena education system, discipline is important for the bhikkhus and for lay pupils. Discipline is more important for meditation as it involves the body and mind and it is a method of taking control of the mind. Hence, discipline is necessary for the bhikkhus to study the profound teaching of Buddhism. The discipline of all citizens lso important to maintain peace and harmony of the state. Therefore, in both education systems discipline plays a specific role in moral education. Another significant objective of both education systems is the moral leadership. In the Platonic education system, the production of an intelligent, philosophical, governing class becomes the ultimate aim. However, in Pirivena education the development of moral leadership was considered more important. The prevalence and prosperity of any state depends on the conduct and administration of a good leader. Furthermore, the educated monks became the educators of the society and their main function was to guide the citizens to lead a better and virtuous life. Therefore, in both education systems the development of moral leadership is important. Conclusion The systems of education proposed by Plato and that practiced in Sri Lankan Pirivenas embrace many ideas and principles that are no less valuable because they are old. Despite the different socio-cultural and socio-political scenarios and the time frame within which these education systems operated and developed, both systems noted the importance of giving moral education and good ethical training to their pupils.
A critical evaluation of the social philosophy in early Buddhism
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Rev. Chullanaga, Godamune
Introduction The following books attempt to prove that Buddhism is an anti-social religion: Religions of India - By Max Weber (New York -1958), Central Philosophy of Buddhism - By T.R.V. Murti (London -1960), The Sleep walkers - By Arthur Koestler (Hutchinson – 1959), The Bodhisatva Doctrine of Buddhist Sanskrit Literature - By Har Dayal, (New Delhi - 1978). These authors represent early Buddhist thought as a teaching emphasizing personal salvation alone without any regard for social welfare. They assert that the attainment of Arahanthood is self-centric encouraging the individual to mind his own salvation alone leaving aside the rest of suffering humanity. Thus early Buddhist thought according to them has ignored service to the needy. To them Buddhism is devoid of any social dimension whatsoever. Max Weber in his "Religions of India" Weber says in relation to early Buddhism: "Salvation is an absolutely personal performance of the self- reliant individual. No one and particularly no social community can help him. The specific character of all genuine mysticism is here carried to its maximum......" 1 According to him Buddhism does not offer any relevance to daily life. It speaks of something beyond our experience. It is a religion to be practiced individually. Tirupattur Ramaseshayyer Venkatachala Murti in his "Central Philosophy of Buddhism" says "The ideal of the Arhat is the highest stage of the Hinayana system........... Again, the Arahant rests satisfied with achieving his own private salvation. He is not necessarily and actively interested in the welfare of others. The ideal of the Arahant smacks of selfishness; and there is even a lurking fear that the world would take hold of him if he tarried here too long..........." 2 Likewise all four of them have described Buddhism as an anti-social, selfish, mystical and socially sterile religion. Max Weber was responsible for the popularization of this interpretation of early Buddhism. He has utilized the terms “mystical” and “asocial” to describe the nature of Buddhism and to state that there is no collective endeavor recognized in Buddhism. According to them, Buddhism teaches its followers to escape from society and that there is no social progress in a society where Buddhism is practiced. The objective of this paper is to cite canonical commentaries and contemporary social facts to show that Buddhism is a social philosophy. Methodology This study will be based on early Buddhist scripture. Discussion The allegation that Buddhism is a religion with no socially important grounding can be easily refuted by focusing on the teaching which are directly connected to various basic social aspects such as the: 1. Three-fold meritorious deeds practiced by the laity– Dāna (giving), Sīla (virtue) and Bhāvanā (Meditation) 2. Four-fold modes of excellent life- Cattāro brahmavihārā - Mettā (Lovingkindness), Karunā (Compassion), Muditā (Altruistic Joy) and Upekkhā (Equanimity) 3. Ten meritorious deeds- Dasapunññakiriyāni 4. Ten perfections- Dasapāramitā 5. Ten principles to be practised by the king- Dasa Rāja Dhamma 6. Three-fold meritorious deeds- Alobha, Adosa, Amoha These teachings clearly point out that Buddhism has a social dimension. Justice is not done to Buddhism by denying this obvious fact. No one can claim that Dāna (giving) for example, has no social benefits. The emphasis given to Dāna in the teachings mentioned above tells us that Buddhism functions in a well-knit society. This is further collaborated by the teachings of ten meritorious deed and ten principles of kingship. This contradicts the anti-social allegations against Buddhism. It should be mentioned here that the predicament of humanity is diagnosed in Buddhism as a consequence of social corruption and malpractices. A person’s position can be better only when social evils are eradicated. The lesson of Buddhism is that the individual alone is not responsible for his or her problems. Society contributes so much to the problem. This is extensively discussed in the Aggañña Sutta and Cakkavatti Sīhanāda Sutta of the Dīgha Nikāya. It is quite strange that the scholars like Weber have not paid enough attention to these discourses. Similarly there is enough evidence in the Pāli canon to formulate a Buddhist concept of economics. The Buddha has preached to reshape man’s attitude towards environment. The Buddha has endeavoured to create a crime free society. To inculcate norms and values the Buddha not only devoted his entire life but also encouraged his enlightened followers to do the same. Isn't this enough to say that Buddhism has its own social Philosophy? In the pancasila or five precepts, it is quite clear that there are some resolutions taken by an individual in order to abstain from actions harmful to society and the individual, and the person is exhorted to cultivate certain virtues simultaneously for the benefit of society. For example a person abstains from killing while laying aside all the weapons of destruction (Nihita Daṇḍdo Nihita Sattho). And he who is compassionate (Dayāpanno) becomes merciful towards all living beings (sabbapāṇabhūta hitānukampi viharati). Similarly a person, while professing to abstain from steeling, satisfies himself with only what is given (Dinnādāyī) and enjoys what is given (Dinnapāṭi Kaṅkhī). Conclusion In this way, these precepts also lead one to develop one’s own character in relation to society. Hence these 5 precepts characterize the most fundamental socialization process in Buddhism. Resorting to meritorious acts one accumulates merits, the impact of which is to be realized not only in the next life but in this life as well. As all these topics have varying degrees of social implications, we can understand that the allegation that Buddhism is a religion with no concern for society can be easily rejected through critical examination.
A preliminary archaeological investigation of the Pansal Godella site in Puttalam district, Sri Lanka
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Jayaratne , D. K.; Bandara, A. J. N. M.
Introduction The site locally called Pansal Godella (8° 05'.42'' N 79° 52' 58.07'' E, 5m from MSL) (the temple mound) is located in the Mailakumlam GN division (637/1) in the Vanatavilluwa DS division of the Puttalam district of Sri Lanka. This site is also bordered by the Thewanuwara GN division (640B) in Karuwalsgaswewa DS division of the same district. According to geological evidence, areas such as Tabbova, Andiyagama and Aruwakkalu represent some ample floral and fossil faunal evidence which belong to several million years ago (Tantrigoda et.al. 1991). Archaeological evidence in the region proved that this area was a focal area for ancient inhabitants beyond the modern administrative boundaries. However, the human history of the North and North Western sectors of the Island can be traced back to the prehistoric period (Deraniyagala 1992). Furthermore, chronicles, some historical texts as well as folklore and legends indicate that this region was named as Tambapanni in the ancient times which directly belong to the legend of Prince Vijaya and his followers who landed on the island around 6th C.B.C from northern India. (Sumangala 1957, Nandaratana 1984). According to the archaeological evidence this region can be taken as a continuous attractive region for ancient settlements from the prehistoric period to later historical periods. The research objective of this paper is to examine the archaeological significance of the ancient Buddhist holy place located in the remote area of the North-Western province of the country. Methodology At present, archaeologists need multidisciplinary theoretical and methodological frameworks to examine the complex contexts of their sites. Therefore, the methodology of the present work is also contained with multidisciplinary approaches such as archaeological, geophysical and remote sensing approaches. According to the research design of this paper literature review is the one of the major components. It helps to understand and summarize the settlement history of the study area. Parallel to the literature review, a cartographical research has been done. This survey is vital to obtain a basic idea on the physical and cultural landscape of the study area. It helps to identify locational significances of the site called Pansal Godella and its relationship with other archaeological evidences scattered in the study area. One-inch maps, metric maps, and satellite images have been used for this purpose. Exploration methods play the main role in data retrieval from the field. According to the research design at the initiate stage, the total space of the study area was explored by remote sensing exploration method. This would help to understand a contrasting picture of archaeological evidence scattered in the study area considering their physical as well as its environmental settings. In the next step, the site Pansal Godella is explored in detail. Pedestrian survey method is the primary exploration method in this research. Eye observation is a necessary data retrieval method to examine the formation processes and present condition of the site. Personal communications with the villagers were also utilize to understand the folklore and legendary history of the Pansal Godella site. The Global Positioning System (Magellan GPS receiver) and Geographic Information System (GIS)1 are used to obtain the absolute location of the site and analyze and interpret the spatial locational significances of Pansal Godella. Results and Discussion According to the previous studies the existing archaeological landscape of the region proves that there was a continuous settlement history in this area. During the survey, writers noted that majority of the visible archaeological evidences in the area belonged to the ancient Buddhist monastic sites. The site called Pansal Godella located in the western corner of the present Mayilakulam village and located on right bank of the Mee Oya. At present this archaeological site located in the private land block which belongs to Mrs. Ranmenika (77 years) who is the volunteer caretaker of this place. According to the archaeological evidence scattered on the ground, it can be noted that there was an ancient monastic site in this place in the ancient times. A ruined Stupa is the primary archaeological evidence that can be seen on this site. This ancient Stupa is profoundly disturbed by various archaeological site formation processes. A thick vegetation cover grown on the Stupa has mostly destroyed this monument. Root systems of trees grown on the Stupa have affected bricks to make displacements from its original location and conditions. Except floral disturbances faunal activities on this mound also disturbed its original condition. Rodent activities on the Stupa mound is highly affected to make various physical disruptions. According to observations, this would be a medium size Stupa approximately 10 – 12m in diameter. Brickbats and other evidences including stone pillar and basal stones scattered around the mound proved that the history of this Stupa can be traced back to the Anuradhapura or Polonnaruwa period. Legendary and folklore history in the region also provide same ample evidence to prove this matter. (Personal Comm. with Mrs. Ranmenika at Mailakulam village) However, this idea should be verified through further investigations. Apart from the above mentioned evidence, writers could observe other two remarkable archaeological evidences from the Pansal Godella site. The first is a partially damaged anthropomorphic Terracotta figure. This figure is 3.5 inches in height and 2.5 inches in width. History of research related to the Terracotta figure in Sri Lanka can be traced back to the 1920s. (Hocart 1924). This type of artifacts are recovered from especially the dry zone of the North Central and North Western parts of Sri Lanka (Deraniyagala 1960, 1972, Manatunga1990, Manatunga 2015). Researchers believe that this type of artefacts belong to the dry zone agrarian societies who inhabited the Island in ancient times (ibid). Chronological sequences of this kind of artifacts are varied (Deraniyagala 1960, Dodanwala 1998, Deraniyagala 1997). History of research shows that this type of figurines is commonly found from lands belonging to the paddy fields and Chena cultivation. Therefore, they believed that this culture would belong to the ancient dry zone agrarian societies (Manatunga 2015). The terracotta figure found from Pansal Godella also represents rude and simple characteristics. Observations proved that this anthropomorphic figure shows female features. One hand is broken and small two clay balls were used to mould the breast of this anthropomorphic figure. However, villagers believe that this figure belongs to the god Hanuman (Personal Comm. with Mrs. Ranmenika at Mailakulam). However, there is no doubt ancient inhabitants would have used this type of figures for their ceremonial purposes. Next, the remarkable evidence is a crude rim shard with the dual trident (Thrishu̅la) symbol. Writers observed that this trident symbol was moulded on the rim of the pottery. This shard is the only remaining part of the whole pot and 6.5 × 1.5 inches in size. According to the rim shard, this would be a medium size pot approximately 30cm in diameter. This is a red ware rim shard with medium surface luster. Detailed observations show that this rim shard is highly corroded due to the various formation processes. The dual trident symbol on this rim shard is vital because this symbol indicates some information on Hinduism. Both Hocart and Deraniyagala believed that above mentioned Terracotta culture belongs to Shiva worship (Hocart 1924, Draniyagala 1960). If it is true, this site also provides both Terracotta and trident symbol which indicate some information on Hinduism. Conclusion In one hand, Pansal Godella can be taken as an ancient Buddhist monastic site. On the other hand, the terracotta figure and trident symbol show that there were other religious activities in this place parallel to Buddhism. Observations proved that this place is still in danger due to the treasure seekers’ activities. The writers noted that treasure hunters disturbed few stone pillars and basal stone with ancient carvings and other artifacts was scattered on the site. On the other hand, this land is located in an isolated place in front of the paddy fields. Using this advantage treasure seekers can easily access this land. Therefore, authorized institutions should need a proper plan to protect this archaeological heritage.
A preliminary study of the measurement of solar radiation to evaluate the solar energy potential of the University of Peradeniya area
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Rambukkange , M. P.; Rekha Nianthi, K.W.G.
Introduction Solar radiation is an important climate variable because it is usually the largest input of energy to the surface and hence drives the surface energy balance. It also controls the temperature of the surface and the atmosphere and, therefore, influences the atmospheric moisture content and processes associated with the hydrological cycle such as convection, cloud formation and precipitation. Therefore, solar radiation is important for a wide range of physical processes in the environment. The energy demand of the country is continually increasing. Solar energy is the most abundant of all energy resources, so it has great potential as a sustainable source of energy to meet the needs of society. Solar energy is renewable, its utilization has little environmental burden and it is an excellent method of mitigating climate change. Adopting solar energy conversion technologies have a positive impact on the environment because they can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by decreasing the use of fossil fuels. However, utilization of solar energy requires detailed knowledge of the solar energy distribution (Poudyal et al. 2015). The most detailed study on sunshine conditions of the island is found in Domroes (1974). This study was based on sunshine records from 39 stations in Sri Lanka between 1962 and 1971. Despite the limitation of using sunshine hours for the study, the spatial (e.g., highland versus lowland) and temporal variability in the island’s distribution of solar radiation was captured. However, because irradiance measurements were lacking, an assessment of the energy that could be extracted from solar radiation input was not possible. The current study presents an initial analysis of solar radiation irradiances measured using a silicon pyranometer to assess the potential of solar radiation as an alternative energy source. Methodology An automatic weather station (Watch-Dog 2000 series) was installed near the Department of Geography, University of Peradeniya. The silicon pyranometer of the weather station measures the solar radiation spectrum in the 0.3 and 11.0 m wavelength band. The watch -Dog’s data logger records the downward radiation (irradiance) from the solar spectrum in units of W/m2 at 15-minute intervals, thus enabling the creation of solar irradiance curves as a function of time for each day. The analysis of solar radiation data spanning a period of approximately one year – October 2014 to September 2015 – is presented. Results and Discussion In Fig.1, the grey coloured dots represent the daily irradiance values computed from the pyranometer of the University of Peradeniya. The black solid line represents the monthly mean solar radiation, estimated from the daily observations. The black dashed curve plots the monthly mean data from Peradeniya for 1994, obtained from the data published in Nakagawa et al. (1995). The figure reveals that the lowest solar irradiances were measured in the month of December 2014, whereas the highest irradiances were observed in March 2015. < chart > The grey colored dotted line represents the monthly mean values of the maximum daily temperature. It suggests that higher temperatures occurred during greater levels of incoming solar radiation. The grey colored vertical bars depict the monthly total rainfall. Lower rainfall values are associated with higher solar insolation because thin tenuous clouds produce little rainfall, but cause greater solar irradiance on the ground. The figure also reveals that the period May-September in 2015 was exceptionally dry despite being the South West Monsoon period, the climatological rainy period in Peradeniya. Fig. 2 shows the sunrise and sunset times and their monthly mean values for an entire year. The distance between the two curves represents the length of the day, the period during which solar radiation is available. The mean sunrise time occurs between 5:53 a.m. and 6:18 a.m. during the course of the year, so the sunrise time fluctuates only by about 25 minutes. In contrast, the sunset time varies by about 44 minutes. The length of day computed in the above manner reveals that the shortest days occur in December when the latitude of the sub-solar point is located furthest from Sri Lanka. Peradeniya received more than 12 hours of solar radiation except for some days in October and November and most of the days in December. Besides calculating day light hours, the pyranometer data can also be used to calculate the mean number of sunshine hours in each month where the irradiance exceeds a user defined threshold value (e.g., bright sunshine hours). < chart > The correlation coefficient estimates from the time series of daily solar irradiances and mean daytime temperatures, and daily solar irradiances and daily rainfall were 0.86 and 0.35, respectively. Solar radiation is a primary factor that controls the surface and air temperatures, so one expects a strong correlation between solar radiation and the air temperature, but solar radiation influences rainfall in an indirect manner. The monthly irradiance measurements for the University of Peradeniya area were in agreement with 1994 data for Peradeniya. Although the analysis in Domroes (1974) was conducted with sunshine recorder cards, which records the daily hours of sunshine, there is general agreement between the two results: i.e., smaller amounts of energy are received during the calendar months of November and December. Conclusion The pyranometer data captured the annual solar radiation distribution for the weather station at University of Peradeniya. The monthly irradiance measurements were in agreement with 1994 data for Peradeniya. Despite being in the highland region with the possibility of significant cloud cover, the University area receives on average of over 15 MJ/m2 of solar energy per day most of the time, except in November and December; this daily value is in agreement with values obtained by Samuel and Srikanthan (1982). Since, the length of day does not change significantly from 12 hours in Peradeniya, the variability in solar radiation caused by monthly changes in the cloud cover must be studied to assess the solar energy potential.
A study on slaves in euripides' alkestis
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Wickramasinghe , Chandima S. M.
Introduction This study will focus on one of the earliest plays of Euripides, Alkestis. Euripides is known to be a revolutionary playwright, who introduced novel characters and themes on to the ancient Greek stage. There are two slaves, one female and one male, playing a significant role in the play Alkestis and contributing to character and plot development. The objective of this study is to examine how Euripides uses the two slave characters effectively in the play to create an overall effect on the drama. Methodology The present study employs a literature survey accompanied by critical studies and analysis on Euripidean techniques on characterization and plot development. The speeches of the slaves and the dialogues in which they form a part will be studied closely. Besides, the other Euripidean plays with slave characters will also be studied closely. Secondary literature on Euripidean plays, Greek society and slavery and Greek drama will also be used as appropriate. Results and Discussion Plays of Euripides and various aspects of Euripidean drama have been studied extensively over the centuries. Though the slave characters as Andromachy and Hecuba have attracted scholarly attention the slave characters in Alkestis have not received sufficient attention. The present study therefore attempts to research this problem. Euripides is known for reforming the traditional configuration of ancient Greek plays by introducing strong female characters and intelligent slaves. As a result, Euripides was considered to be a revolutionist and he was criticized heavily by his society. The play Alkestis presents two slaves, one male and another female, their characteristics indicate that they are typical slaves who are loyal to their master / mistress and are devoid of restrained manners and intelligence. Though these two slaves appear only very briefly on stage, their presence is crucial for the development of the plot and of the characters of Alkestis and Admetos. Euripides was criticized by Aeschylus for incorporating certain characteristics, for example bold speech, as can be seen in the agon of Aristophanes, into his slave characters. However, these characteristics are distinct in the play through the two characters in the same way that Hecuba, Andromachy or Ion are represented in their respective plays. It is through the words of the slaves, especially those of the female slave that Alkestis becomes a dominant figure throughout the play despite her brief appearance.1 Euripides uses the slave characters to attract and to retain constant attention on Alkestis. Euripides has assigned specific roles, at specific instances, to these two slaves in rousing pathos in the play and the master sentimentalist has cleverly woven them into the plot of the play. Sometimes, the words of slaves represent their individual heartfelt declarations (Alkestis, lines 192-196), at other times they are spokes-persons of their slave community (ibid, lines 762-764; 769-771). At times they also disclose the views of the whole Phaerean society (ibid, lines 152-155). It is through the words of the female slave that the contrasting characteristics of Alkestis and Admetus were presented first to the audience. By using the female slave, Euripides, on one hand highlights the noble and virtuous character of Alkestis and, on the other hand the cowardice of Admetus. Furthermore, the unrestrained nature of her servile character stands in contrast to the reserved noble etiquettes of Alkestis. Such was Alkestis' manner at her public appearance (ibid, lines 169-173). Yet, if not for the employment of the slave character, who had access to Alkestis' private sphere of life, Euripides would not be able to draw the contrast between her internal element of morality that is expressed by the conflicts in her mind, and her external element of morality (displayed in her public appearance), which is sure to have multiple regulators. Moreover, the contribution of the female slave, through reporting Alkestis' concern for her children, is vital to accomplish the effective introduction of the child motive. In addition, the remarks of Alkestis gain more weight when they are reported by a loyal slave. In likecircumstances the audience is prepared to meet a mother wailing for her children's safety. This anticipates or forms a prologue to the resolution at which Alkestis' later arrives to safeguard her children (ibid, lines 302- 303). The character of the male slave on the other hand reveals to Heracles that the queen Alkestis is dead, the very thing Admetus wanted to hide from him. Here too through the unrestrained nature and recklessness of the slave, Admetus is reunited with his wife, Alkestis thus turning the play into a tragicomedy. It also helps Admetus to regain his lost kudos as a king whose hospitality is boundless. In addition, it is the betrayal of the male slave that draws Heracles' attention to Admetus' hospitality, thus it is the slave who prompts Heracles into action. Moreover, the male slave's remark, that Alkestis was a mother to him and to the fellow slaves indicates that she was an exceptionally kind mistress who never bullied her slaves psychologically, as any other slave owner of the time did. The comparison of the temperaments of Admetus and Alkestis towards their slaves makes us wonder whether Admetus was not as mild as Alkestis. Conclusion Thus, it is clear that the two slaves are necessary to stir pathos of the play. Their contribution to the development of Alkestis' and Admetus' characters is vital and significant. Euripides has cleverly used these slave characters not only in the development of the plot but also in introducing a change into the play by using Heracles to bring back Alkestis. In addition, the slave characters inform us of the condition of slavery that prevailed in Admetus' house. It can be stated that Euripides would not have appealed as much to audiences if not for the slave characters.
Academic dependency in social sciences: alternative sociology discourses relevant to South Aasia under post colonial conditions.
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Gamage, S.
Introduction Sociology as a discipline was introduced to the South Asian higher education sector during the British colonial period. Since then, the teaching of sociology has gone through significant transformation as a result of various contextual, systemic and institutional factors. This transformation had many dimensions as well as impacts on the quality and standards of teaching and research in sociology and anthropology. Notwithstanding this transformation, ‘academic dependency’ on Western forms of theory, methodology and knowledge produced as sociology elsewhere continued - some say, in a distorted manner. It is argued by some sociologists that what is taught is an ossified form of historical sociology rather than one relevant and suitable for contemporary South Asian societies. Sociology teaching also neglects local intellectual, philosophical and cultural traditions. Sociologists writing from the ‘global south perspective’ are proposing alternative forms of knowledge construction in social sciences by using local intellectual traditions, concepts, theories and methodologies in the form of indigenous sociology or pluralist sociology. The objective of this research is to contribute to the development of a ‘critique of Western hegemony’ and ‘academic dependency’ perpetuated in the social sciences in South Asian universities on one hand and to start a dialogue on alternative knowledge construction relevant to the historical, cultural, and epistemic contexts in the countries of South Asia informed by local intellectual and philosophical traditions, on the other. This is critical in the face of globalisation processes where knowledge defined by the social science powers of the Global North continue to expand to regions like South Asia at an accelerated phase due to technological advancements and open borders. Methodology The paper is the result of library research and a review of relevant literature, conducted over the last two years on the subject and intellectual discussions in the Comparative and International Education Research Network (CIERN), School of Education, University of New England, Australia. During this period, we have been critically reviewing literature pertaining to Southern Theory and alternative knowledge construction from the perspective of global South e.g. Connell (2007). In the paper, I will specifically articulate the findings from my research pertaining to Social Sciences in South Asia including Sri Lanka with a focus on sociology (including social anthropology). This paper examines the nature of ‘Western hegemony’ and ‘academic dependency’ visible in social sciences, in particular sociology and anthropology, in South Asia and what factors impact it and also what alternative knowledge construction is possible and suitable for South Asia in the Social Sciences under Postcolonial conditions. Results and Discussion The results reveal that there are epistemic, institutional and contextual factors contributing to the perpetuation of Western hegemony and academic dependence in social sciences in South Asian universities. Among these factors are colonisation, change of the medium of instruction from English to local languages, brain drain, lack of trained staff, expansion to rural and regional areas and politicisation, de-linking with global sociology, text books in local languages, and consultancy work for NGOs. The academic dependency on Western social science knowledge (theory, concepts, paradigms, methods, curricula and textbooks) has been described by the terms ‘captive mind’ (Alatas, 2006). Such dependency has led to the creation of ‘a lack of fit’ between received Western knowledge and the needs of countries concerned. Imitative practices continue in teaching, research and publications while social scientists do not make an effort to identify and construct concepts, theories and methods from their own indigenous intellectual, cultural and philosophical traditions though it is possible. As Alatas (2006) states, while it is difficult for social scientists to change the structural conditions leading to such academic dependency, they are certainly able to change the intellectual orientation in their teaching, research and publications. The paper addresses alternative sociology discourses such as indigenous sociology and pluralistic sociology and their nature in the latter part. Conclusion If sociology is perceived as a science or a pseudo science that is designed to discover ‘objective’ truths or realities by using a rigorous methodology in the empirical tradition, there is very little deviation possible whether the research is conducted in South Asia, in Europe or America. Sociologists in South Asia and elsewhere may need to think beyond this positivist orientation to research by embracing interpretivist or other approaches or even re-discovering alternative approaches from their own historical, philosophical, religious, and literary traditions for the study of society, culture, human behaviour, and social problems. Going beyond the ‘reproductive mode’ in teaching sociology requires critical, creative and ‘out of the box’ thinking and reflection by sociologists in the region by posing difficult questions and looking for answers. Sociologists in South Asia need to get involved with other social scientists and humanities scholars who are versed in the local traditions of scholarship – though not called sociology scholarship per se- and enter into collaborative work in terms of research and publications. They need to look at age-old literary practices with a fresh set of eyes and re-discover the value of the wisdom contained for contemporary uses and futuristic enterprises. They need to move beyond the standard imitative talk of the sociology discipline toward an unknown, undiscovered (by the sociologists) social, religious, political, and economic thought that exists in the sub-layers of society.
An analysis of e-literature on the game of cricket in sport sciences
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Kalidasan, R.
Introduction Research and publications on a particular sport play a major role in its growth and development. Vigneshwaran (2015) viewed that “studying, analyzing and assessing published sports literature in particular area is not very common in the field of research. Such work will definitely document the various aspects including historical development of the sport, origin, growth & development of the sport, techniques, tactics, strategies, skill development, general & specific training, statistics, sport sciences, research influences, complete profiling of literature and so on.” Today Information scientists apply many techniques to assess publication on a particular area. In this respect, bibliometrics and scientometrics are popular methods used throughout the world. In the past few sports specific bibliometrics studies have been done on soccer, judo and rugby. (Vigneshwaran, 2015; Peset, 2013; Martin, et.al. 2013). Cricket is a popular sport which is played in more than 108 countries around the globe. Literature on ‘Cricket’ is plenty and available in various forms. The main focus of this work is to study, assess, analyse and document the publication pattern on the game of Cricket from the electronic source. To analyse the literature on Cricket globally, many techniques are used by modern day scientists. As there are no major Scientometric and Bibliometric studies on analysing the publication outcome in the field of Cricket, the investigator was motivated to take-up this study. The purpose of the study is to analyse the global literature on the game of Cricket in the area of ‘Sport Sciences’ which is available in the electronic form. It attempts to profile the literature on ‘Cricket’ under the following categories: the year-wise publications of literature on Cricket, country-wise distribution of publications, analyze the language-wise distribution of literature on Cricket, document the title-wise classification of literature on Cricket, list the top ten institutions with high productive literature on Cricket and the top ten contributing authors in Cricket publications. Methodology Bibliometrics research, which is a statistical analysi of scientific and technical literature, is adopted in this work. Bibliometrics analyses quantitative and qualitative data to describe publication patterns within a field of research. In the quantitative analysis, various parameters namely, year-wise distribution, country-wise distribution, language-wise distribution, title-wise distribution, institutions-wise distribution and author-wise distribution are systematically analyzed to measure and quantify the amount of literature and research output on Cricket during the study period. The electronic database known as the Web of Science, which has a very strong coverage and mostly written in English, was used in this study. The data were retrieved from this database by using the search term ‘Cricket’ in ‘topic’ published in all the years and all types were analyzed. In all, 7,139 documents were found in Web of Science database from 1st January 1993 to 26st February, 2016. In order to narrow down the study the research areas option and selected the area ‘Sport Sciences’ were used. In all 355 documents were found and all were taken for final analysis as the sample. In data collection, initially the researcher downloaded the bibliographical data in notepad files. The collected data were analyzed with the assistance of ‘Histcite Software’ for data classification and the unique data were rearranged in MS-Excel format to eliminate duplication from downloaded data. To cross check the data, with the assistance of analyse result option, the data for analyse were checked. Using the collected data, a Quantitative analysis was done. The results of the study were discussed broadly using illustrations in the form of diagram and table. Results and Discussion In all 355 documents were published on ‘Cricket’ under ‘Sport Sciences’ classifications, which was far less than for ‘Football’ under ‘Sport Sciences’ classifications (5,879 documents) in the database on the cut- off date. The maximum number of Cricket publications was in the year 2013 and triennial growth rate was observed after 2005 onwards. This study indicates that publications in Cricket were done in 29 countries and Australia tops the list with 180 publications, followed by England with 102 publications. Vigneshwaran et.al. (2014) observed that ‘86 countries have published at least one literature on Soccer’. The present result also reveals that out of 4 languages, English has 351 literatures and stood first among the source languages. ‘Journal of Sports Sciences’ has published maximum of 65 publications in Cricket. Vigneshwaran et.al. (2013) in their work documented ‘Journal of Strength and Conditioning’ has published maximum of 507 publications in Soccer. The result reveals that University of Western Australia had contributed a high number of literature in Cricket, followed by the University of Sydney. Most of the Australian Universities were among the top ten Universities that published on Cricket. Among all authors globally ‘Portus M’ has published 16 items in Cricket, followed by ‘Elliott B’ contributing 14 publications. From this study, it is evident that published work on ‘Cricket’ under ‘Sport Sciences’ classifications, was comparatively less than many other major sports played throughout the world. Conclusion Hence it was concluded that more works on Cricket should be encouraged internationally. To preserve the information and to enhance the research excellence globally, literature in Cricket should be in electronic form.
An ethno-ornithological study in Okè-Odò and Táńkẹ́bùbú villages in Iilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Weliange , W. S.; Ayodele, K.; Prasannajith, N. S.; Afolbi, A. S.
Introduction Ornithology, as the scientific study of birds, now stands as a leading example of the power of global science (Sillitoe, 2007) to explain the functioning of the natural world through an experimental paradigm. Ethno-ornithology is the study of birds, and the prefix “ethno” calls to mind ethnology, ethnography – that is, having to do with the diverse peoples of the Earth (Tidemann and Gosler, 2010). The present study will describe the uses of birds in two villages in Nigeria, Òke odò and Táńkè bùbú < map > Fig. 1: A map of Africa showing the location of Nigeria (insert), a map of Nigeria showing Kwara State and the Òke odò and Táńkè bùbú villages (star). Methodology This study was conducted from October 2013 to February 2014 during which period ten field visits were undertaken to the two villages: Òke odò and Táńkè bùbú. The people of these villages have a very good knowledge about nature and its inhabitants. The informants were selected based on the recommendations of the elderly hunters. Interviews were conducted with the help of a semi-structured questionnaire composed of two parts: subject area and specific questions. To facilitate the interviews, a PowerPoint presentation on 42 species of birds was shown to the informants. The bird photographs were taken between February 2013 and March 2014 around Ilorin in Kwara State in Nigeria. Results and discussion The study helped to gather a considerable amount of important information pertaining to vernacular names, edibility, African magico- medicinal uses, ornamental purposes, predictions, superstitious practices, representation in folklore and nesting habits of birds. Vernacular names The villagers were able to identify 39 bird species and also provide their local names. Some birds seem to be related; Purple Glossy Starling (Lamprotornis purpureus) and Long-tailed Glossy Starling (Lamprotornis caudatus) are known as Yọ́rì-yọ́rì, and the Abyssinian Roller (Coracias abyssinicus) is known as Ọba yọ́rì-yọ́rì which means the king of yọ́rì-yọ́rì. The Laughing Dove (Streptopelia senegalensis) is known by another name: Àtàbàor Àdàbà. The cock and the hen (Gallus gallus domesticus) are identified separately as Àkùkọ and Adìyẹ abo respectively. Edible birds Among the 42 species considered for study, 24 were found to be edible. Although the Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis) is edible some consider its meat to be black. Many species of birds are not eaten mainly because they are small in size. African magico-medicinal uses Among the birds identified in this study, 27 species are used for African magico-medicinal uses, for illnesses such as Arthritis, health problems related to children, and bareness. The whole bird as well as feathers, legs, heads and scales are found to be more useful in preparation of medicine. The usage of birds is also largely reflected in magical practices. Superstitious practices The study revealed that 13 bird species are known to be connected with superstitious beliefs. Some of the superstitious beliefs are linked to death. For example, people do not encourage the domestication of the Quail (Coturnis communi) because they believe that rearing this bird at home will lead to the death of several people in the house while the loud call of the African Scops Owl is known to be a bad omen. Representation in folklore According to the informants,10 bird species are related to folklore and proverbs, poems and sayings. Conclusion In Òkè-odò and Táńkẹ́ bùbú villages in Ilorin, Kwara state, Nigeria, birds are utilized for different purposes and are of great social, economic and cultural importance. Birds are useful as food (meat, eggs and bones), in African magico-medicinal uses, as instruments of ritual and magical practices, as ornamental birds, and as pets for pleasure and companionship. Furthermore, birds are also used to afflict “bad” on persons, and in the oral tradition and in proverbs. Most birds are known and recognize through their behavior and vocalizations. Local bird names originate from color of the plumage, vocalizations, feeding behavior and their preferred habitat. Some of the names have been derived onomatopoeically from their vocalizations. Each of the vernacular names also have different meanings. Thus, bird names are an important part of the social and personal lives of people. About 27 species of birds are important in African magico-medicinal uses highlighting the knowledge and beliefs of the villagers in the healing capabilities of birds. The use of birds in traditional practices and beliefs of indigenous people in the Òkè-odò and Táńkẹ́ bùbú villages shows parallelism with Philippines and other Asian and African cultures.
Attitudes of ESL students towards English speaking activities used in the classroom
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Priyadarshanie , S. M. A.
Introduction English language plays a major role in connecting persons in different countries, societies and cultures. Today, excellent communication skills in English have become an essential requirement for people to succeed both in their professional and personal career development. This study was carried out among the students of the University College of Kuliyapitiya who follow the National Diploma Courses for the NVQ (National Vocational Qualification) level 5 and 6 in different fields of Technology. The study group consists of 25 students who have been studying Construction Technology in the first semester at NVQ level 5. Even though the majority of students were at the pre-intermediate English proficiency level, they expressed the need to further improve their proficiency in spoken English since it is imperative for their studies at the University College. This study was therefore carried out with the objectives of investigating the effectiveness of speaking activities in English practiced during the 1st semester of NVQ level 5. According to Thornbury and Slade (2006, p.17), speaking is social in feature and so it establishes rapport and mutual agreement in society. It also maintains and modifies social identity using interpersonal skills, wishes, feelings, attitudes, opinions and judgments. Speaking is a multi- sensory activity because it involves paralinguistic features such as eye- contact, facial expressions, body language, tempo, pauses, voice quality changes, and pitch variation. In the acquisition of a language, most learners identify the speaking ability to be the most important language skill to be perfected. According to Burnkart (1998)2, in the teaching and learning process of oral communication, there are three areas of knowledge that teachers and students should be aware of. They are; mechanics, functions and social and cultural rules and norms. Scott (1981)3 stresses the need to follow three significant guidelines when teaching speaking to young learners; a. Identifying the needs of the learners b. Identifying the learning objectives of the learners c. Providing them with required materials (vocabulary, grammatical structures and other language items Methodology This study was based on both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Quantitative data were gathered through a questionnaire that was distributed among students and qualitative data were obtained through informal interviews with students. The questionnaire was distributed among students at the end of the semester. Results and discussion Amongst the varied speaking activities practised in classrooms during the semester, the researcher found that most of the students were particularly interested in three specific speaking activities which according to them are useful in their future search for well-paid jobs in both the local and global job market.: making informal telephone conversations, making formal telephone conversations and talking about future plans. Students’ preferences < chart > Conclusion According to the findings of the study, the majority of students agree that the number of speaking activities practiced during the course was adequate and that they improved their English speaking abilities through them. Moreover, they believe that during the course, they participated actively in both pair activities and group discussions. The majority of the students accept that they were able to build up their confidence in speaking in English at the end of the semester.
Citizens’ trust in public institutions: the case of Sri Lanka
(2016-07-28) Ramesh, R.; Umadev , D.
Introduction Citizens’ trust in public institutions has often been viewed as an important element of successful governance. Citizens’ distrust in government institutions considerably affects the effectiveness and efficiency of public policies and implementation. The Human Development Report (UNDP, 2014) revealed that trust in most public institutions is alarmingly decreasing in Sri Lanka owing to inefficiency, ineffectiveness, institutional discrimination, endemic corruption and politicization of the public sector. This low level of trust in public institutions impacts the quality of democracy and government in Sri Lanka. The present government has been concerned about establishing good governance and an uncorrupt and independent public sector, which fundamentally requires citizens’ trust. Thus, this paper sheds light on citizens’ perception of public institutions and the level of trust that they have in them. It seeks to explain the decreasing amount of trust of public institutions through theoretical and empirical evidence. Methodology In the case of Sri Lanka, very few studies have taken place in the past on citizens’ trust in government institutions. The paper focuses on the following institutions: District and Divisional Secretariat Divisions, Grama Nailadari, Police, Agriculture, Hospitals, Education, Samurthi Office/Bank and Electricity. The study employs a mixed method research approach: quantitative data were collected in Kandy and Nuwara-Eliya in 2015 through a semi-structured questionnaire survey with simple random sampling of a sample of Sinhalese, Tamils and Muslims. There was a total of 100 respondents: 59 female and 41 male. Qualitative data were collected through focus group discussions (FGDs). The locations had a multi-ethnic character, which enabled us to effectively gather data from the three ethnic groups. Secondary data were collected by reviewing much published and unpublished work on the topic. Both qualitative and quantitative data analysis methods were employed in the study to interpret results, particularly, simple descriptive statistics are used to describe the patterns of trust citizens have in various public institutions. Table 1: Sample Frame for Questionnaire Survey < table > Results and Discussion The study found that the overall trust in public institutions was 66.6%. The ethnic categorization was significant: 39.9% of Sinhalese indicated trust compared to only 29.9% of Tamils and 30.2% of Muslims. This could perhaps be attributed to the effective functioning of government institutions in Sinhalese concentrated areas and better access to public services. This study also reveals that the language of administration (Sinhala) has also enabled the ethnic majority to more easily access public institutions. It is important to note that the study found different levels of trust in relation to respondent’s socio-economic profile and age. Middle-aged people were fairly satisfied with public institutions compared to senior citizens. In relation to education, 58% of respondents with only primary education have high trust compared to 42% of educated people. Table 2: Level of Trust by Citizen < table > Identity and Trust Identity influences a citizen’s trust in governance. State funding, resource allocation and other necessary amenities were made available to the Sinhalese areas whereas public institutions in Tamil regions were under- funded and under-resourced. Political Patronage and Trust In the case of Sri Lanka, service delivery has often been linked to a system characterized by political patronage, partisan politics and political manipulation. When these practices prevail in government institutions, citizens in turn also have a limited degree of trust in those institutions. The majority of respondents (67%) revealed that the patronage system has had a powerful influence on citizen trust in government institutions. Because political parties have established patronage as a key medium in service delivery at the local level, citizens’ trust and the equality of service delivery is undermined. Trust in Selected Public Institutions and Corruption Corruption was a major grievance throughout the study, agreed upon by respondents belonging to all ethnic groups. They identified the Police and the Grama Niladari Office6 as the most corrupted institutions in their areas. On the other hand, the study found that Hospitals, Kachcheriya (District Secretariat) and Divisional Secretariat Offices are the most trusted institutions. A significant number of respondents expressed their grievances on experiences of discrimination and ill treatment in public institutions. The study found that experiences of family members, neighbours, colleagues and fellow citizens influence trust in public institutions. Although the government gives high priority to service delivery, it is also evident that the quality of goods and services in terms of access, equity, efficiency and sustainability has progressively deteriorated. Conclusion This study attempts to capture the level of citizens’ trust in government institutions. The study reveals various factors (political, social, ethnic and institutional) that negatively influence trust. This indicates the importance of improving service quality, impartiality, and equality in service delivery in order to increase trust among all sections. Low trust in public institutions considerably impairs the potential quality of public institutions and the notion of good governance that the present government keeps promoting. The Sri Lankan case shows that in ethnically diverse societies, building citizens trust in public institutions (institutional trust) continues to be a challenge due to ethnic, religious, linguistic and political divisions. Table 3: The level of trust in the government institutions < table >
Claiming the ‘other’ through fiction: traversing the fanatic-liberal binary in the discursivity of the muslim as the ‘other’
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Hamead , T.; Sivamohan, S.
Introduction Compelling literature blurs the line between fiction and reality for the reader. It has the ability to construct a ‘truth’ that is indispensable: creating a historical, political and social imagination more legitimate than truth alone. This narrative is a quest for ‘meaning’ and the various forms it takes, beginning from words such as ‘fanatic’, ‘fundamentalist’, ‘liberal’, ‘progressive’, ‘Muslim’ etc. The paper explores the dichotomies between ‘fanatics’ and ‘liberals’ in relation to the Muslim in literature and film. The notion of a ‘fanatic’/‘fundamentalist’ and a ‘liberal’/‘progressive’ announces itself in the post 9/11 context, fertilized through popular fiction which breeds a discourse encompassing every day conversation and print and social media; the “inner dialectic quality of the sign comes out fully in the open only in times of social crises” (Volosinov 23). Works of fiction that have flooded the creative world following the 2001 attacks on the Twin Towers are integrated into popular fiction and thereby into popular discourse, and assist in carrying forward and maintaining a particular kind of political hegemony. Methodology Sivamohan Valluvan says that the “new nationalist movement where political discourse” is concerned, is positioned around “supposed problems posed by those who” do “not to belong to the normative ethno- national community – be it via concerns about immigration or about already established minority communities”1. Valluvan states that such issues can only be then handled at the “international level”. This is why I would like to deliberate upon two texts from this post 9/11 discourse that depict the global overrunning of being Muslim or the ‘Global Other of America’ – The Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini and The Reluctant Fundamentalist by Mohsin Hamid . Results and Discussion While accentuating the Muslim, 9/11 also gave America a prospect of unravelling the Other through writing. Fiction generates an opportunity to ‘claim ownership of the Other’ and sets up a dialogue between the Self and the dissociated Other; a dialogue created by the Self to keep the Other in place. Claiming the Other occurs so that the Other can be nurtured in accordance with the Self’s wishes. Thus, ‘claiming’ and comprehending the Other here, transpires through apportioning the Muslim into two distinct groups in terms of ‘visible signs’: the ‘fundamentalist’ who characterizes ‘fanatical’ tendencies magnifying religiosity and the ‘progressive’ who reflects ‘liberal’ tendencies by compressing religiosity. ‘Owning’ the Other occurs through this ‘fanatic’-‘liberal’ division and consequently through the ‘sign’ transforming itself into a “verbal sign” (Volosinov 3) and thereby announcing itself, again conspicuously at a time of crisis. ‘My Son the Fanatic’ and the Theoretical Terrain My Son the Fanatic by Hanif Kureishi is significant to this discussion as it raises political questions interrogating such terms as the ‘fanatic’ and the ‘liberal’ and subverting the dichotomy within a domestic sphere, years before 9/11. It is in this deconstructive stance that Hanif Kureishi gives a theoretical frame of reference to begin and examine the two selected texts. Kureishi’s story is a precursor in many ways as “‘texts’ are not ‘finished’ as forms of action, as what they ‘do’ depend on how they are ‘taken up’” (Ahmed 106). The final lines of the short story, “So who is the fanatic now?” posed at a theoretical level, deconstructs and challenges the post 9/11 ‘conventional wisdom’ of the ‘fanatic’ and the ‘liberal’ being boxed within a specific frame. I focus on the strain between the father-son duo in the story as it reflects that the binary is complex within the space of the home alone, going on to illustrate the vagaries of the tempestuous clash between the East and the West. Here lies the fragility of the issue; who is the ‘fanatic’ and who is not? Is there such a thing as a fanatic or a non-fanatic? The ‘Global Other’ of America: Afghanistan and Pakistan Fiction also claims the space of the Other or the disempowered territory. The Kite Runner and The Reluctant Fundamentalist are both set in America and the narrators’ respective country, Afghanistan and Pakistan – two countries directly impacted by the ‘war on terror’. The analysis highlights the fanatic-liberal binary through the depiction of the two countries and in how they are then transferred onto the self-other dichotomy through the narratives, the narrators, the reader/s and so on. The Question of Class: Taxi Drivers and Domestic Workers The paper also looks at the selected texts through a frame of class. The taxi driver who forms the comforting background in The Reluctant Fundamentalist is the focus in My Son the Fanatic. The short story is then able to bring those from the peripheries into the frame. In contrast, the narrators in The Reluctant Fundamentalist and in The Kite Runner come from privileged backgrounds and thus their accounts are coloured by class, calling for a delving into in this study. Uncovering the Dichotomy: The Woman In the scuffle between the father and son in My Son the Fanatic, is trapped another Other, who does not fall into the roles of ‘fanatic’ or ‘liberal’ but throws the already troubled father-son duo into further crisis. The silent wife and the maligned sex worker Bettina bring up the rear in My Son the Fanatic, uncovering and forcing us to confront gender as a crisis within the disempowered; “women’s entry in revolutionary and decolonization movements has been essential in unsettling gender construction” (qtd. in Moallem 226). This statement is analysed through the women in The Kite Runner and The Reluctant Fundamentalist. Homecoming and ‘sing mother sing’ In order to substantiate my discussion and bring it close to home, I look at Sivamohan Sumathy’s film sing mother sing, which illustrates how people respond to the violence around them. It consists of various narratives and I focus on two in particular; a woman who recounts her feelings on a recent riot and a bystander to the narratives unfolding around her. At the cusp of home, land, homeland and motherhood are the women, occupying the inside and the outside of it waiting and ‘watching’. I believe this film opens up spaces for voices, marginal and feminine –the Other of the Other- that cannot be encapsulated by the hegemonic progressive/liberal, fundamentalist/fanatic dichotomies and throws into crisis the very notion of such terms, corresponding with the questions posed by My Son the Fanatic. Conclusion To conclude, this study is an attempt to show that fiction does not end with the closing of the book, nor does discourse. Merged together, fiction and discourse have the ability to come into our lives and hold power over how we see, read, respond and give meaning and attributes to things.
Cultural dilemmas of Indian business communities : Sri Lankan experiences in the colonial era
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Gunarathne , M.S.
Introduction Colonialism fundamentally changed the traditional pattern of Asian migration and opened new avenues for trade and investment for migrant merchant communities and occupational opportunities as indentured labour for agrarian classes. Various Indian business communities were attracted in large numbers by the favourable environment created by the plantation economy under British rule and diversified their economic operations and their trading networks in Sri Lanka. These Indian communities played vital and diverse roles in the colony’s economic transformation during the British era. Ethnic migrations and diaspora studies have become popular in the disciplines of humanities and social sciences. But very little research has focused on contingent factors that produced diasporic communities in the Asian region. Sri Lanka is a pluralistic society and apart from the major ethnic groups like the Sinhalese and Tamils there were more than twenty five small ethnic groups composing its population. Most of them migrated to the island during the colonial period. The principal problem addressed in this research is the cultural dilemmas of Indian Business communities in Sri Lanka in their endeavour to locate themselves in a new colonial and socio-cultural context. This study investigates the complex dynamism with which these communities deployed different strategies – both to adjust and preserve their ethnic and cultural identity. The special focus of this study will be on the first half of the 20th century when the nationalist agendas of the Sri Lankan elite presented the Indian communities with the formidable problem of complying with the citizenship requirements of the new independent state in order to safeguard their economic interests as well as their cultural identity. Methodology Both qualitative and quantitative approaches of data collection and analysis were used in this research. In regard to the qualitative approach, interviews were conducted with the descendants of each community still living in Colombo or suburbs to gather information of their family histories. The research also involved the search for private collections of documents of their families. This research was based on information and data obtained from primary archival materials in Sri Lanka and statistical records of colonial governments. Analysis of the information collected has been used to support the arguments relating to the transformation of this community. Results and Discussion These Indian communities such as Chetties, Bharathas, Borahs, etc., underwent socio-economic and later political transformation in the Sri Lankan colonial society. Political as well as socio-economic policies practiced under British colonial hegemony impacted on their complex transformation in this period. Under the changing socio-economic and political conditions they were able to achieve an upward mobility in the social ladder. At the same time the favourable socio-economic environment as well as the administrative structures created under colonialism were utilized to change their economic role beneficially, collaborating with colonialism. Thereby, they were able to transform their traditional identity both qualitatively as well as quantitatively in Sri Lanka. But at the same time they were bent on maintaining an identity as a separate Indian diasporic community. Conclusion During the British period this community adjusted itself to the new religious and socio-economic environment of colonialism using colonial institutional and socio-economic avenues to create a new identity and achieve a higher social status in Sri Lankan colonial society. When Sri Lanka transformed from a colony to an independent nation in 1948 the citizenship issue emerged as a controversial and crucial problem. With the transfer of power to Sri Lankan leaders their economic agendas and the requirements of citizenship of the new nation these migrant communities were confronted with the critical problem of accepting either expulsion or integration. While most migrant Indians departed at this juncture some of them managed to successfully integrate themselves into the new nation, safeguarding their economic and occupational interests.
Democracy in a pluralistic society: a comparative analysis of Sri Lankan and Indian constitutions
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Udagearachchi , U. A. H. H.
Introduction Pluralism in a society is the presence of more than one cultural identity among its population. According to the dictionary definition, pluralism is a state of society in which members of diverse ethnic, racial, religious, or social groups maintain an autonomous participation in and develop their traditional culture or special interest, within the confines of a common civilization. The majority of Commonwealth countries are plural societies, where different ethnic, racial, cultural and religious groups live peacefully together. In this sense Sri Lanka can also be identified as a pluralistic society because it is a multi-ethnic, multi-religious, and multi- lingual society. Democracy is a key characteristic of a plural society. By definition democracy means the government by people. This right can either be exercised directly or through representatives. In situations where direct democracy is unsuccessful as a result of a diverse population spread over a large geographical distance, representative democracy becomes useful. In this system, representatives are chosen by the people to make decisions on behalf of them. Therefore, the representative body becomes a manageable size for doing the business of government. But a vast majority of countries that call themselves representative democracies are not true democracies. Most of them are actually just elected dictatorships. When considering a democracy in a plural society, India provides the best example for it. India is the world’s most complex and comprehensively pluralistic society, home to a vast variety of castes, tribes, communities, religions, languages, customs and lifestyles. But it was the first among major democracies in the world to recognize and provide for the right of cultural collectivities - diverse religious and linguistic communities living in the country. The Constitution of India has created an institutional structure and principles that would allow diverse people to live together as citizens of India. By a constitutional amendment, a new system of rural local bodies called 'panchayats' and local municipalities were introduced in 1993. The constitution of India has become the best guarantee for a viable and vibrant nation. Thus it is obvious that, to ensure a vibrant democracy in a plural society, the Constitution is important. The Constitution of a state acts as the supreme law of the country. The new government of Sri Lanka has endorsed the need for constitutional reforms enacted to significantly prune the powers of the executive presidency and to strengthen democratic governance, with a mandate to address minority aspirations of devolution while maintaining the unitary character of the Sri Lankan state. A meaningful new beginning for Sri Lanka is only possible when a revived awareness and recognition of the linguistic, religious and ethnic diversity that already exists in Sri Lankan society is achieved. The recognition of this essential diversity is, as the Canadian philosopher Charles Taylor suggested, fundamentally linked to politics of recognition. The objective of this study is to understand how to establish a democratic society in Sri Lanka as a plural society by establishing strong institutional structures through constitutional reforms. In order to achieve this objective, the researcher seeks to look at the patterns of other jurisdictions of plural societies particularly the Constitution of India. Methodology This is a comparative analysis of Sri Lankan law with international guidelines and a selected jurisdiction; namely, India. Statutes, books, journals, articles and other relevant documents were analyzed where necessary. Result and Discussion When compared to the democracy of other pluralistic societies, it is observed that Sri Lanka needs some reform. The author suggests the existing system of government in Sri Lanka as a pluralistic society, should be changed by strengthening democracy. For an effective democratic society this study suggests a government, which consists of three levels, namely the central government, regional governments and municipal governments. Also the national legislature should be a bicameral one, elected by the people. The regional governments should also have bicameral legislatures. The central government and regional governments should in turn share the legislative powers of the people, which should base itself on the principle of popular sovereignty. Further there should also be an extensive framework of checks and balances. Furthermore theses checks and balances should include the constitutional prohibition of discriminatory legislation, guarantee fundamental rights and freedoms for all, unanimity as well as veto power in legislation, promotion of common values, equalization programs and people’s exchange programs at different levels. Through these changes, an opportunity can be created for people who belong to different cultural groups, to participate in the decision making process. In a pluralistic society it is essential to consider all opinions of effected parties when implementing rules and regulations. On that basis, representation of all parties in society is a positive way to establish democracy in Sri Lanka. Conclusion Based on the comparative study of selected jurisdiction, it can be recommended that it is essential to introduce an effective democratic system in Sri Lanka. In multicultural, multi-ethnic and plural societies, social justice, economic progress and political democracy can be achieved only through accommodation of diverse interests and identities. If democracy is not receptive to various identities in a plural society, then it remains only a majoritarian democracy that under privilege minorities. Therefore the Constitution should ensure special provisions for the protection of minority rights as well as balancing group rights with individual rights. Many pluralistic societies have proven that pluralistic views can exist side by side as long as they are mutually respected.
Determinants of household solid waste generation and willingness to pay for an improved solid waste management practice in Kandy municipal area
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Ranathunga, R. M. S. S.; Sri Ranjith, J. G.
Introduction This study investigates the determinants of household solid waste generation and the willingness to pay for an improved solid waste management practice in Kandy Municipal area. Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSW) is important for ensuring environmental wellbeing, human health and living standards of people living in urban areas. The recent literature shows that providing a better solid waste management system is a challenging task for any country (Kwetey, S. et. al., 2014). Services related to solid waste management are far from satisfactory in many developing countries due to their financial and social problems (Wang, H.J. et al, 2011). Local authorities in Sri Lanka too experience serious difficulties in addressing this problem. In 2005, the estimated average solid waste generation in Sri Lanka was 2838.46 tons/day and has been predicted to reach 1.0 kg/per cap/day by 2025.1 According to the database of MSW in Sri Lanka (2005), per capita waste collection per day is 0.62Kg2. Because of this rapid increase in solid waste generation, KMC requires an effective solid waste management system. In order to implement a better solid waste management strategy relevant data and information regarding household waste generation and management practices is required. Little systematic research has been conducted focusing on this issue in KMC. Therefore by conducting a primary survey, this study mainly expects to identify the socio economic determinants of household solid waste generation in Kandy area. It also attempts to identify the major socio economic determinants of people’s average willingness to pay for an improved solid waste management service. Methodology This research is based on both primary data and the secondary data. A sample of 80 households in the Kandy municipality area was selected using stratified random sampling method and the relevant information was collected using a structured questionnaire and interviews. Two regression analyses were carried out to analyze the primary data. The first regression model regresses the percentage of solid waste generated by a household per day (i.e. the proportion of household waste given to the Municipal waste collection service) against household monthly income, household size, education level of the household head, extra land size within the compound of the household and distance from the center of the city. These variables were chosen based on the existing literature3. The percentage of waste which a household give to the municipal waste collection system per day was taken as an indicator of household waste generation since it was practically difficult to measure the total waste generated by a household. The model is shown below. < mathematical equation > Using the Contingent Valuation Method, the probability of willingness to pay was regressed against the household income, amount of property tax paid by household, amount of waste generated by H/H, distance from the center of the city, education level of the H/H head, extra land size within the compound of the household and the ownership of residency4 as follows. < mathematical equation > Results & Discussion According to the survey results, the average amount of solid waste generated by households per day is 1.79 kg/day. As shown in Table 1, major Socio economic factors which determine the household solid waste generation are Household income, Household size, Education status of the H/H head and the Distance to the house from the center of the city. Gender of the household head and Extra land size of the household do not show a significant impact on waste generation. Size of the household is the most important factor which determines the household waste generation in Kandy Municipal area, and Household income also has a significant positive impact. Table 1.Estimated results of determinants of solid waste generation in Kandy Municipal Area < table > Table 2 gives the results of household willingness to pay for a better MSW management system. In general, about 62.5% of the households are willing to pay for better management of waste while 37.5% are not willing to pay. Also percentage willing to pay is higher in the high-income groups and lower in low-income groups. The average amount of money which households are willing to pay for the waste management service is Rs93.63. As shown Table 2, the major socio-economic factors which determine household willingness to pay are Household income, Amount of property tax paid by the household, Education level of household head, Amount of waste generated by the household and distance from the core of the city. Ownership of the residency does not have any significant impact on willingness to pay. When household income increases probability of willing to pay also increases. However marginal effect (0.0052) of income on willingness to pay is very small. Amount of property tax paid by the household also has a significant but negative impact on willingness to pay as the increment in tax amount will reduce the peoples’ motive to pay. Table 2.Estimated results of factors influencing WTP for a better MSW management system < table > When the household head is more educated, he /she will be more aware on environmental cleanliness and willing to pay more for a better waste management system. Extra land within the housing area is negatively correlated with the household willingness to pay because when people have extra land, they dispose some amount of their waste within the housing area and are less likely to depend on municipal service. When the average amount of waste generated by a household increases, they face problems such as waste collection, storage and disposal. As a result, they demand for municipal waste management service more. Distance from the core of the city also has a significant negative impact on households’ WTP as they have more space and alternative ways to dispose the waste rather than using the municipal collection service. The ownership of the residency is not important in determining the WTP for a better solid waste management service in Kandy area. Conclusion This study identifies Household income, Household size, Education status of the H/H head and the Distance to the house from the center of the city as the key determinants of both household solid waste generation and willingness to pay for the waste management services. These findings are compatible with the findings of previous empirical research conducted regarding developing countries (Baldisimo, J.M. 1988). According to the results, a majority (63%) of the households in the city are willing to pay for a better waste management service. The average amount of willingness to pay is about Rs 93.60 per month and by levying a flat rate service fee which is equal to that mean value, the Municipal Council can obtain a revenue of approximately Rs. 30,584,736/= and thereby save 15% from their recurrent expenditure. Therefore, introducing a service fee for the waste management service provided by KMC can be recommended and seems to be financially viable in providing a better waste management service.
Determinants of informal credit demand by SME holders in the rural sector (with reference to Pambahinna, Balangoda DS division)
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Lankeshwara, P.; Wijesekara , N.M.
Introduction As in most of Asia and the Pacific, Sri Lanka too, has a majority of its people living in rural areas, estimated at around 78% of its total population. The small industries in the rural areas are the major source of employment and production of food and, therefore, of the Sri Lankan villager’s livelihood. The relatively labor intensive nature of this sector, coupled with regional dispersions of cottage and small scale industrial enterprises, enables them to create substantial employment opportunities particularly in the informal sector. Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) have a great potential to mobilize financial resources in the economy which would otherwise have been used for consumption purposes. In rural areas’, a substantial portion of the investment cost of small scale units is financed by domestic sources, mainly from their personal savings or informal borrowings (Gamage, 2000). In particular, informal sources play an important role in fulfilling the financial needs of the rural community. Even though formal financial institutions have expanded in the rural sector, many rural households still demand informal credit. Non-institutional or informal lenders are still seen as playing the major role in the provision of rural credit in Sri Lanka (Sandaratne, 2002). Better accessibility, flexibility of repayment, being less time consuming, no collateral requirements and proximity are the major reasons for a high demand for informal credit by the rural community (Karunagoda, 2007). According to the Consumer Finance Survey (2003/2004) of the Central Bank of Sri Lanka nearly 10.7% and 89.3% of the loans were provided by the formal and informal sectors, respectively in 1978/79. When considering the value of loans the figures are 25.3% and 74.7%, respectively. Corresponding sets of figures for 2003/04 are around 45% and 55% (number of loans) and 61.1% and 38.9% (value of loans). The informal sector loan amount is lower on average than that of the formal sector. Studies on informal/rural finance have been carried out in many countries. Essien et al (2013) examined the frequency of loan demand in the credit market among small scale agro-enterprises in Nigeria. According to their results borrowing experience, firm income, guarantor, social capital and non-agro based income significantly influenced the frequency of informal credit access. Amjad and Hasnu (2007) in their study of smallholders’ access to rural credit in Pakistan, showed that family labour, literacy status, off farm income and value of non-fixed assets were the main influential factors for accessing formal credit. Total operated area, family labor, literacy status and off farm income were important factors in accessing informal credit sources. According to their findings in Pakistan more than 90% of smallholders obtain credit from informal sources. Messah and Wangain (2011) found demographic and socioeconomic factors affecting credit demand by small scale investors in Kenya. Gender, marital status and the number of dependents (unemployed) in a family were the most significant demographic factors while level of education and income of enterprises were important socioeconomic factors. According to their findings education, level of income were an important elements that has a positive impact on small scale enterprises demand for credit. In comparison with studies in other countries there is a dearth of studies relating to informal credit demand in Sri Lanka. Existing studies have not paid attention to the determinants of informal credit demand by SME holders in rural sector. Accordingly, this research aims to find an answer to the question, “what are the determinants of informal credit demand by SME holders in rural sector?” The objectives of the study are (to): * Examine the determinants of informal credit demand by SME holders in rural sector * Identify how influencing factors impact on informal credit demand by SME holders in rural sector. Methodology The model is conceptualized as follows < chart > Figure 1: Conceptual Frame Work Source: Researcher’s construction The study utilized primary data from a sample of 50 SME holders chosen from Pambahinna in the Balangoda Divisional Secretariat (DS) Division in accordance with the Morgan approach of sample selection through the purposive sampling technique, using a structured questionnaire. A multiple regression model was utilized as the main data analyzing technique. The study was operationalized as follows. Table 1.Operationalization < table > Results and Discussion Regression results are reported in Tables 2 and 3. According to the results, around 75% of the total variation of informal credit demand is explained by price, convenience, process, core service efficient, empathy and image (Table 2). The adjusted R square of the study is 0.737 and it indicates that the higher portion of the model (87.5%) is fit for the population. The model shows overall significance by the F test (Table 3). Table 2. Regression results < table > Table 3.Analysis of Variance < table > From Table 2, core service efficient, process and image are the significant factors in the demand for informal finance. Omitting the insignificant variables, the regression equation can be depicted as Y = 0.295+0.271 X ₁ + 0.182X₂ + 0.231X₃ where Y = Demand for informal Credit X₁ = Process X₂ = Core service efficien X₃ = Image The constant has an unstandardized β0 value of 0.295. It indicates the value of informal credit demand when all of the independent factors remain constant. Β value of the process suggests that, if process component is increased by one unit, demand for informal credit will increase by 0.271 units when all of other variables remain constant and as same as coefficient of the core service efficient, when it is increased by one unit, demand for informal credit will also increase by 0.182 units. Further, image also leads to increase demand for informal credit by 0.231 holding other factors constant. Process has the highest β value as 0.271 and it is the most influential factor for the demand for informal credit. Further, all the explanatory variables which is in the regression equation positively influential for the informal credit demand. Conclusion The main purpose of this research was to identify the significant factors for informal credit demand by SME holders in rural sector. In order to achieve this objective pricing, convenience, process, core service efficiency, empathy and image were considered as explanatory variables and were tested for any association with demand for informal credit by SME holders. According to the results of Multiple Regression Model, process, core service efficiency and image were the main variables which impacted on demand for informal finance and process was the most affected variable for informal credit demand. It has further determined that SME holders in rural areas pay a special attention on process and also for the core service efficiency and image.
Do romantic relationship breakups provide opportunities for personal growth?
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Dharmarathna, M. N. G. S. R.; Karunanayake, D. D. K. S.
Introduction Relationships are central to human existence. It provides camaraderie, courtship and love. Although the romantic relationships are primary source of happiness and satisfaction the loss or breakup of a romantic relationship can be a significantly distressing event. The pain of lost love is so intense and it can shake a person’s beliefs about human interaction and relationships. The idea that significant positive changes can occur in persons who are confronted with challenges, suffering and loss was suggested by Calhoun, Tedeschi, Cann & Hanks (2010). For example, negative outcomes of a romantic relationship break up represent only half of the picture and it leaves the positive outcomes under explored. Although the loss can produce a negative impact on a person, a person also has the capability of confronting the loss and surviving it. It may also result in positive changes in a person’s life. The theoretical framework of the personal growth following romantic relationship breakup was discussed by Schaefer and Moo’s model of crisis and personal growth (Park, Cohen, & Murch, 1996), Janoff – Bulman’s model and Horowitz’s model (Herbert, 2006) . Most research in this area studies distress following a breakup. This study formulates a new approach to understanding relationship breakups, by focusing on possible positive changes, which reveal personal growth. The research findings can be used to help people rethink their reactions to breakups by identifying the personal strength within them. The research will also inform interventions in such cases. The primary objective of this study was to find whether romantic relationship breakups provide opportunities for personal growth. * In line with this main objective, following questions were developed. * What are factors that contribute to personal growth after a relationship break up? * How does gender interact with post break up growth? * What factors result in romantic relationship breakups? Methodology The study employed a qualitative research design utilizing semi- structured interviews including a list of open-ended questions based on the research topic. Using the purposive sampling technique a sample of 6 participants including 3 males and 3 females were drawn from the Faculty of Art, University of Peradeniya. The sample was selected from participants who had breakup of romantic relationship within last 18 months. Thematic analysis was used to examine data gathered from interviews. Results and Discussion The analysis extricated five themes, which were characteristics of the break up, personal strength, improved relationship with others, characteristics of the person’s environment and factors affecting the break up. The study revealed that romantic relationship break ups provide opportunities for personal growth. Findings showed that although persons experienced negative changes as a result of relationship breakups, as time passed it provided an opportunity to view life more, positively. According to the findings, factors that affected the process of breakup and the reaction to the breakup were personal distress, duration of the relationship and the initiator status. The distress following a breakup can vary from person to person and gender played a significant role. The causes affecting romantic relationship breakups were betrayal, family disapproval and mismatching ideas and desires of the two individuals. Findings indicated personal strength as a major component of personal growth following a romantic relationship breakup and it includes self-perception and coping strategies. Finally it was revealed that person’s environment had an strong impact on a person’s growth following a breakup and that a breakup allowed individuals to build better relationships with others. Conclusion The study suggests that romantic relationship breakups do provide opportunities for personal growth. It is important to identify the characteristics of the breakup in order to develop an insight about romantic relationship. Personal distress, duration of the relationship and the initiator status were found as the major characteristics that are significant to understand the breakup process and the reactions to breakup. Factors impacting breakups are betrayal, family disapproval and mismatching of desires and wishes. As per this study, the way people experience romantic relationship breakup differs from one another and gender difference is identified as prominent. Females tended to express more sadness and feeling of being betrayed by the partner and males developed anger rather than sadness. The growth following romantic relationship breakup is attainable with the acquisition of personal strength, social support and the possibility of forming a new relationship. While a number of research related to this area were conducted in other countries this study was an attempt to explore personal growth following romantic relationship breakup in Sri Lankan society.
Effect of Pinus Caribaea plantation on vegetation diversity and distribution by reforestation in lower Hantana
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Wijerathna, P. M. N. K.; Hettiarachchi, C. S.; Wickramagamage, P.
Introduction During the colonial period, planting of fast-growing tree species in degraded lands was a common practice in the central highlands of Sri Lanka as a biological solution to the land degradation problem. Pinus caribaea is the most common type of fast-growing tree species selected for this and the total area planted exceeded 16,000 ha in 1870s (www.forestdept.gov.lk). Out of the 27,771 ha of Pine plantations, 25,091 ha are of P. carbaea, which was established easily on depleted soils (Ambagahaduwa et al., 2009). Between 1980 and 1985 P. caribaea was planted by the forest department under a reforestation project of the upper Mahaweli catchment (Bandaratilake, 1988). The main objective of this study was to evaluate biodiversity of a reforestation area. This study was initiated to investigate the impact of P. caribaea plantations on vegetation diversity in comparison with nearby vegetation types. Methodology The study site is situated in the lower Hantana area belonging to the University of Peradeniya, Kandy district. Its coordinates are 700 15’ latitude and 800 47’ longitude. The general elevation is 480-600m above sea level, with mean annual precipitation and temperature of around 2121mm and 24 0C, respectively (Nissanka and Sakalasooriya, 2000). The site belongs to the wet-zone mid-country (WM2) agro-ecological region. The most dominant soil group is reddish brown latosolic (Moorman and Panabokke, 1996 as cited in Ambagahaduwa, 2008). The unused grasslands of Hantana ridge was selected for planting P. caribaea in the 1980s to provide ground cover, enhance natural regeneration and to control soil erosion (Rathnayake, 2001 as cited in Ambagahaduwa, 2008). These plantations had not however been silviculturally managed since their establishment. In this area of secondary forests, Grasslands and P. caribaea are the dominant vegetation types at present. Three vegetation types were selected in this study. They were secondary forest (SF; ~60 years old), restoration forest (RF; 11 years old) and mature P. caribaea plantation (PP; 35 years old). Restoration forest (RF) at a site formerly under P. caribaea plantation was initiated by the forest department as a research project in 2004. Several rows of mature P. caribaea trees totaling 126 trees were removed in one pine stand to establish an enrichment trial with some indigenous tree species. Those were Artocarpusnobilis, Maducafulva, Michelicachampaka and Terminaliabellirica (Ambagahaduwa et al., 2009). From each vegetation type, four quadrates each of 10m2 area and plants taller than one foot were counted to measure the vegetation diversity and distribution. The vegetation diversity and distribution were identified using Shannon- Weiner (H’) and Shannon evenness (E) indices and 36 soil samples were collected from each vegetation type during the wet season. Fresh soils were tested for soil moisture levels using weight loss method. Air dried soils were tested for soil pH and total organic carbon using loss on ignition method. Litter samples were collected using the random sample method in each quadrate of 5m2 and the Litter fall rate (g/m2/yr) and structural differences of litter fall rate were measured using oven dried samples. Results and Discussion Seventy two plant species were identified in the study area among which 39, 34 and 15 species were from SF, RF and PP respectively. Trees dominated all the three vegetations and 55 tree, 11 shrub and 06 vine species were found. There were 4 common plant species found in all three vegetation types. Those were Alstoniamacrophylla, Neolitsea cassia, Panicam maximum and Gliricidiasepium. When the total abundance of common species was compared, in SF the highest abundance was shown by N. cassia which is an endemic species. In RF it was A. macrophylla which is a pioneer and dominant species in RF; also it is not an enrichment trialed species. In PP it was P. maximum which is a shrub and pioneer species. The dominant species of SF was Symplocoscochinchinensis which is a native and pioneer species and in PP it was Psidiumguineese which is a shrub species. There were more than 29 new species found other than for the 04 species restored earlier in RF. Among the recognized species 03 of them were endemic and it can be identified as Ficusfergusonii, Semecarpus sp. And Neolitsea cassia. There were seven native species found which are Alstoniascholaris, Asparagus racemosus, Breyniaretusa, Flacourtiaindica, Macarangapeltata, Osbeckiaaspera and Ziziphusoenoplia. Other species were exotic and most of them were pioneer species such as Alstoniamacrophylla and Gliricidiasepium. Vegetation density was the highest in PP because understory vegetation was rapidly grown with shrub species during the wet season. However, during the dry season vegetation density had decreased due to anthropogenic fires in PP. However, the highest Shannon-Weiner diversity index was reported in SF which was 2.359, while RF and PP had indices 2.265 and 1.545 respectively. Shannon evenness (E) was the highest in SF which was 0.643, while RF and PP had indices 0.642 and 0.570 respectively. According to Shannon-Weiner and Shannon evenness indices a greater vegetation diversity and distribution as expected were recorded in SF and were lowest in PP. Nevertheless, vegetation diversity and distribution have increased remarkably in RF compared to PP in a short time period and RF is an isolated vegetation stand in the middle of a Pine plantation. RF has reached to a comparable level to that SF in a short period of 11 years. This may be due to some reasons such as a production improvement from a nitrogen-fixing species and the reduction of competition between-trees due to mixing trees with contrasting phenologies (separation in time) or the different root or canopy architectures (separation in space) (Chamshama and Nduwayexu, 2002; Lamb, 1998; Lamb and Tomlinson, 1994; Lamb and Lawrence, 1993; Binkeley, 1992). Results of the soil study showed that soil acidity was statistically significantly higher in PP and RF than the SF (P≤0.05); nevertheless, soils of all three vegetation types were acidic (Fig.1a). Generally the variation of soil acidity under different vegetation types can be attributed to difference in uptake of bases by plants, particularly calcium and the decomposition process occurring in the forest floor and removal of bases from the surface soil by leaching (Jacobs, 2010; Muthukudaarachchi, 1987 as cited in Ambagahaduwa, 2008). However, when structural differences of litter fall rate were compared, the highest litter fall rate was recorded in PP with needle leaves which was 259.65 (g/m2/yr) and in RF it was 76.63 (g/m2/yr). According to Brady (2002) and Jacobs (2010) Pine needles, Pine sawdust and acid peat are effective at reducing pH. In the PP and RF, higher needle leave may cause increase in acidity levels in the soil. Soil moisture was statistically significantly higher in SF and RF (P≤0.05) (Fig.1b). < chart a> < chart d> Figure 1: Result of soil study; (a) Soil pH value, (b) Soil moisture, (C) Soil organic carbon (loss on ignition) and (d) Litter fall rate. Means with the same letter are not significant different at P ˂ 0.05 Higher soil moisture content in SF may be attributable to the fact that SF is a mature forest compared to the other two. Transpiration rates of mature forest are usually lower than young forest stands. Although RF was not a mature forest, soil moisture level had increased within the area. This may have resulted from some conditions other than the maturity of the forest. According to Gunasena (1988) one of the most critical issues with regard to reforestation with Pine is the excessive water consumption due to its rapid growth. The limiting factor which determines evapotranspiration from Pine plantation in the upper elevations is not moisture availability, but the energy for evapotranspiration. At lower elevation, for example in Kandy the percentage of water loss through evapotranspiration is more than one half of the rainfall, consequently there was a substantial reduction of water yield compared to that in the Pine plantations at high elevations (Gunawardena, 1988). This factor may have contributed to the loss of soil moisture under the surface of Pine plantation compared to both SF and RF. According to Fisher and Binkley (2000) soil organic carbon is a crucial factor for plant growth. In this study there was no statistically significant difference with respect to total organic carbon and litter fall rate among three vegetation types (P≤0.05) (Fig.1c & 1d). But the total organic carbon is higher in PP and it may be from charcoal due to anthropogenic fires. Research by Abeywickrama and Ranasinghe (1994), and Lilenfein et.al. (2001) also found that Pine forests improve total organic carbon and supply for plants in subsequent cultures. When considering litter fall rate, litter layer and humus layer, litter fall rate (Fig.1d) and depth of litter layer were higher in PP (PP: 3.63cm, SF: 1.38cm, RF: 2.13cm), but depth of humus layer was lowest in PP (PP: 0.4cm, SF: 3.38cm, RF: 3.38cm). This may lead to a higher fire risk and it means less multi-year accumulations. According to Rupasinghe (1988) as a result of needle leave of pine being unable to touch the earth surface with fine mineral is covered for seeds and also infiltration of water and air is reduced. Therefore, higher litter cover with needle leave also negatively affects vegetation growth. On the other hand, soil erosion is highly reduced due to thick litter cover in the pine site. In Pine plantations, human activities such as anthropogenic fires and destruction of forest cover leads to reduction of litter layer, increasing soil erosion and loss of nutrients. Subsequently plant diversity and distribution are also reduced. People who are living around the area use forest products for several purposes, such as, collecting fuel wood and feed cattle and goats. However, the low levels of biomass production due to pine forest fires does not fulfill their demand. Therefore, replanting with Pine has been abandoned later due to growing concern among the general public and environmentalists on negative issues related to Pine, such as ground water extraction, natural regeneration, forest fire, soil erosion, wildlife habitats etc. Conclusion The results indicate that restoration with native plant species of mixed restoration in enriched Pine plantation have positively affected vegetation diversity, plant biomass and soils within a short time period of eleven years. P. caribaea plantation negatively affected the vegetation diversity and distribution. All objectives of establishing P. caribaea were therefore not satisfied, but due to Pines forest cover and thick litter layer soil erosion and runoff are controlled. With careful species selection and management practices based on an understanding of natural succession and nutrient cycling processes, forest plantations are a promising tool for rehabilitation of degradation land. Therefore, the results suggest that the mixed plant restoration with native plant species is the most applicable and eco-friendly practice to maintain the biodiversity in Central highlands of Sri Lanka.
Entrepreneurial intention of engineering undergraduates in Sri Lanka
(University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 2016-07-28) Perera, R. L.; Samantha , G.
Introduction Entrepreneurship has a significant impact on the socio-economic conditions of a country. For example, by reducing the unemployment rate, uplifting the living standards of the poor, utilizing resources and providing more products/services opportunities to customers. Hence, studies on entrepreneur intention at an early stage are important. Many researchers from both developed and developing countries have researched on entrepreneurial intention. Remeikiene, Startiene and Dumciuviene (2013) state that personality traits such as risk taking, self- efficacy, attitude, behavioural control, need for achievement, pro- activeness and locus of control have a direct impact on entrepreneurial intention; these can also be reinforced through entrepreneurial education. Due to the resulting socio-economic benefits, entrepreneurship has been added to the curriculum of the education system in many countries, including Sri Lanka. Remeikiene, Startiene and Dumciuviene (2013) observe that both scientists and governments of different countries consider entrepreneurship education as being a possible solution to the youth unemployment problem. Structured teaching and learning methods in entrepreneurship have been introduced in building capacity of students. Sometimes, separate programmes are designed to offer specific entrepreneurship related degrees. On most occasions, one course or a few courses for entrepreneurship are introduced as supportive courses in other degree programmes. When considering engineering education in Sri Lanka, some faculties have introduced entrepreneurship as a supportive management course in addition to the main engineering disciplines. As there is a lack of research into examining the entrepreneurial intention of Sri Lankan engineering undergraduates, this study aims to identify (1) engineering undergraduates’ intention to be entrepreneurs and (2) the impact of the entrepreneurship course which they learnt at the university towards their intention. Although there have been many different definitions of ‘entrepreneur’, there is no consistently accepted single definition in academia. However, Sharma and Chrisman (1999) define independent entrepreneurs as individuals or group of individuals, acting independently of any association with an existing organization and thereby creating a new organization. This study considers only such independent entrepreneurs, not corporate entrepreneurs or any other type of entrepreneurs. Bird (1988) defines entrepreneurial intention as a state of mind directing a person’s attention and action towards self-employment instead of organizational employment. Further, Bird’s study suggests that entrepreneurial intention is based upon a combination of both personal and contextual factors. In addition to these factors, this research study focuses on entrepreneurial education as an influential factor towards entrepreneurial intention as suggested by Remeikiene, Startiene and Dumciuviene (2013). Methodology The data were gathered from engineering undergraduates of the Faculty of Engineering, University of Ruhuna, which is one of the leading engineering faculties in Sri Lanka. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data from undergraduates in 3rd and 4th years of their four-year degree programme. Out of 424 students of both batches, 212 students (50%) from each batch were randomly selected. However, due to the exclusion of incomplete questionnaires, the resulting sample size was 176; this indicates a response rate of 83%. In addition to the main engineering disciplines, entrepreneurship is a supportive course for the 3rd year students at this faculty. Moreover, this course is an optional one. Students can follow this course under their interdisciplinary studies. Around 100 students are registered per year for this course. This study also compared the levels of personality traits of three groups (explained below) of students in the sample. Hypotheses in relation to self-confidence, risk taking, ability to identify business opportunities, need for achievement and quality of life in relation to own activities were tested. Results and Discussion Respondentents were asked to select their future plan out of four options. Students who selected the first three options (166 students) were identified as those who have entrepreneurial intention while the fourth option (10 students) were considered as not having entrepreneurial intention. Figure 1. Engineering students’ intention to start up the own business. < bar chart > When asked whether students had followed the entrepreneurship course at the university, 94 students out of 166 who indicated entrepreneurial intent responded positively and 72 responded negatively. The respondents were asked to select the levels of their personality traits in response categories from “very low level” to “very high level”, both before and after following the course. Response categories were quantified from 1 to 5 respectively. The same questions were also asked from those who did not follow the course – but they were asked to select their level of personality traits in general. Three sub groups were thus identified in the sample: “students who followed the course – before following the course”, “students who followed the course – after following the course” and “students who did not follow the course”. A t- test was used to analyze the difference in sample means across the three sub groups. Level of significance was considered as 5% which gives a test statistic of 1.653. The table provides a summary of the results. Table 1. Summary of data comparisons based on t-test. < table > After comparing these values with 1.653, all values in the second column of Table 1 are higher than 1.653. This indicates that entrepreneurial education has a significant impact on all the traits considered. However, in the third column of Table 1 only two traits are significant at the 5% level (greater than 1.653) – this is in identifying business opportunities and the need for achievement. Conclusion Entrepreneurial education has made a positive impact towards the existing personality traits of engineering undergraduates. The positive impact on personality traits from entrepreneurial education increases the entrepreneurial intention of students. However there was not enough evidence to accept that students who did not follow the entrepreneurial course have lower level of personality traits in self-confidence, ability of taking risks and belief in the quality of life depending on own actions when compared with those who followed the course. Despite that there was enough evidence to accept that students who did not follow the entrepreneurial course have lower level of personality traits in the form of identifying business opportunities and need for achievement when compared with those who followed the course. We can thus conclude that entrepreneurial education increases the entrepreneurial intention of engineering undergraduates in Sri Lanka, but there was not enough evidence to compare the level of entrepreneurial intention among those who followed the entrepreneurial course versus those did not. Therefore, entrepreneurial education programmes can be recommended to increase the entrepreneurial intention of engineering undergraduates.

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